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Cheese Making 



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Swiss 

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Fig. 1. — The yield of cheese is closely related to the fat test of the milk used. 



CHEESE MAKING 



A Book for Practical Cheesemakers, Factory 
Patrons, Agricultural Colleges 
and Dairy Schools 



BY 

J. L. SAMMIS, Ph. D., 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

Sixth Edition of Decker's Cheesemaking, Entirely Rewritten 



ILLUSTRATED 



MADISON, WIS. 

MENDOTA BOOK COMPANY 

I91K 



6^ 



COPYRIGHT, 1900, BY J. W. DECKER 

COPYRIGHT, 1909, MENDOTA BOOK COMPANY 

COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY J. L. SAMMIS 



Cantwell Printing Company 
madison, wis. 



FEB -3 1019 

'CI.A514042 



PREFACE. 

Decker's "Cheesemaking" was published in 1893 for the use of students 
in the first American Dairy School, which had been established in 1891 
at the Wisconsin College of Agriculture. The distinguished success of 
the book both in the English language and in a French translation by 
Emile Castele for French-Canadian cheesemakers, is a lasting tribute 
to the memory of its original author. 

Covering only cheddar cheesemaking in the first edition, the work 
was revised and enlarged by Professor Decker for three later editions. 
After his death it was again revised by Dr. F. W. Woll, one of Professor 
Decker's colleagues at the University of Wisconsin. 

The continued growth of the cheese industry in America, and the large 
number of foreign cheese varieties now being made here on account of 
decreased importations, have resulted in an increased demand for Deck- 
er's book among cheesemakers and dairy schools. The complete ex- 
haustion of the past editions has afforded an opportunity for rewriting 
and enlarging the book to meet present day needs. 

The new edition, as heretofore, is intended for use by cheesemakers 
and by Winter Dairy Students, who will study the general chapters in 
Part I, and the chapters in Part II, especially relating to the kinds of 
cheese which they intend to make. The numbering of sections in bold- 
face type, and the index, provide means for ready reference to all topics 
discussed. 

As a new feature of the present edition, the book has been enlarged 
in scope, and designed to form the basis for regular class work in agricul- 
tural schools and colleges. These students may begin with Part II, 
using chapters XX, XXI, VI (acidimeter), XXII, XXIII, VII (rennet) 
previous to the making of rennet cheese described in the later chap- 
ters. Before beginning American cheese (chaps. XXVII and XXIX) 
the rennet tests (chapter VI) should be studied, and while making 
American cheese and other varieties repeatedly in the work room, 
the class may study the remaining chapters of Parts I and II, thus 
utilizing the entire book, if time permits. 

Acknowledgment is due for the loan of cuts by the Wisconsin Experi- 
ment Station; The Marschall Dairy Laboratory of Madison, Wis.; 
Stoelting Bros., Kiel, Wis.; Brillion Iron Works, Brillion, Wis.; Creamery 
Package Mfg. Co., Chicago, 111.; Damrow Bros., Fond du Lac, Wis., and 
Louis F. Nafis, Chicago. 

The book is designed to meet the needs of cheesemakers, dealers, 
factory patrons, students and others interested in the subject of cheese- 
making. 

J. L. Sammis. 

Madison, July 1, 1918. 



To 

STEPHEN MOULTON BABCOCK, Ph.D., Sc.D., 
Chief Chemist of The Wisconsin Experiment Station 

Who, as a teacher, and later as a co-worker, by patient labor 

and wise counsel, inspired the author with a greater love 

for the profession of dairying, 

THIS BOOK IS INSCRIBED 




DR. STEPHEN MOULTON BABCOCK. 




Medal 



lo Dr. Babcock by Wisconsin legislature in 1899. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Part I. General Facts for Cheesemakers. 

Chapter Page 

I — The Cheesemaker's Education 1 

II — Production and Care of Milk on the Farm 5 

III — Inspection of Milk at the Intake 9 

IV — Conditions Affecting the Ripeness of Milk in the Vat 17 

V — A Good Starter for Cheesemaking 21 

VI — Tests for Ripeness of Milk, Whey, Starter, Curd, etc 25 

VII — Calf Stomachs, Rennet Extract, Pepsin, etc 38 

VIII — The Composition of Milk, Whey and Curd 44 

IX — The Composition of Cheese 47 

X — Cheese Tests for Moisture and Fat 49 

XI — Cheese Judging and Scoring 55 

XII — Planning Factories, Large or Small 63 

XIII — Cheese Factory Management 68 

XIV — Cheese Selling and Cheese Boards 75 

XV— Whey Cream and Whey Butter 78 

XVI — Payments for Cheese Factory Milk 83 

XVII — Conditions Affecting Cheese Curing 93 

XVIII — Cleanliness in the Cheese Factory 100 

XIX— The Food Value of Cheese 103 



Part II. Cheese Varieties, Their Classification and Manu- 
facture. 
Chapter 

XX— Method of Classifying Cheese Varieties 105 

XXI— The Making of Casein 111 

XXII— Cottage Cheese 117 

XXIII — Cured Cheese from Sour Milk Curd. Hand Cheese, 

Sap Sago. Experiments on Curdling Temperatures, 124 
XXIV — Fresh, Soft Rennet Cheese. Junket. Neufchatel. 

Skim Milk Neufchatel in Loaves. Coulommier 131 

XXV — -Soft, Ripened Rennet Cheese. Camembert. Brie. 

Limberger. Brick. Muenster 139 

XXVI — Hard, Ripened, Rennet Cheese. Swiss. Edam. Gouda. 147 

XXVII — American Cheese for Three Markets 159 

XXVIII — Minor Sorts of American Cheese 167 

XXIX — Details of American Cheese Making Process 181 

XXX — Italian Cheese in America. Whey Cheese 217 

XXXI— Primost 220 

XXXII — Blue Veined Cheese Ripened With Molds Inside. Roque- 
fort, Stilton, and Gorgonzola i _. 223 



PART I. 
GENERAL FACTS FOR CHEESEMAKERS 



CHAPTER I. 
THE CHEESEMAKER'S EDUCATION. 



(1) Aims. While working in the cheesefactory, or at the 
Dairy School, the young or old cheesemaker tries to learn 
(a) the best way to do each part of his work, (b) the reasons 
why, in every case, and (c) he will try to learn more than 
one way to do each operation, because different factories 
have different equipment, or emergencies may arise when the 
regular equipment can not be used, or special methods of 
handling curd may be advisable. 

(2) Sources of Information. The Winter Dairy 
School student has already had six months' experience as a 
helper in a factory, and has learned much from his employer 
and from visits to neighboring factories. At the Dairy 
School are gathered people from all parts of the country, 
from large and small factories, where different methods of 
making are used. By getting well acquainted and talking 
often with each other, students may learn much. 

Dairy papers, giving the cheese markets, factory and 
trade news, are published in New York, Chicago, Milwaukee, 
Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, California, New Zealand, etc. 
Every student should examine these papers in the library, 
and subscribe to the one or more which he prefers. 

In addition to the books on Milk Testing and on Cheese- 
making which the student buys, there are in the agricultural 
library cheesemaking books in English, French, German, 
Danish, Spanish, Italian, etc. 

Bulletins from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
at Washington, D. C, from the Experiment Stations at 
Madison, Wis., Ithaca, N. Y., Geneva, N. Y., Ames, Iowa, 



2 Cheese Making. 

St. Paul, Minn., and from other dairy states and foreign 
countries give valuable information. 

Instructors at the Dairy School will discuss every part 
of the work in class room and work rooms, and are glad to 
answer questions. A dairy society, meeting regularly, and 
holding weekly discussions on cheesemaking topics and other 
subjects is of great value to students, also affording practice 
in organizing and conducting meetings of factory patrons, in 
public speaking, etc. 

(3) The Student's Duty. Be prompt at all classes. 
Pay close attention so as not to need to be told twice. Write 
down all that is new to you, because 

(1) facts are presented too fast to be remembered, 

(2) writing them down helps one to remember, 

(3) written notes can be studied over and reviewed 

when needed. 

Just as you have a daily schedule of class work, arrange 
for yourself a fixed plan for daily study. Take a short 
brisk walk out of doocs daily and a long walk at least once a 
week, for your health Eat moderately. Sleep with windows 
open. 

"Personal cleanliness* is of the first and highest impor- 
tance with factory operators. Keep your body clean and 
your mind clear. Dirt and ignorance cost the dairy industry 
millions of dollars annually. Each student should take a 
thorough bath at least once a week. There is no excuse for 
lack of cleanliness. See that your underclothes as well as 
your overalls are always clean through frequent changes. 
Each morning before appearing in the class room, the student 
will give his hands and finger nails special attention and in 
all respects be in suitable form for creamery and cheese- 
factory inspection. In general, we hope in our Dairy School 
to teach not only how to make butter and cheese but to 
inculcate habits of great personal neatness, and an intense 
desire to have everything about the factory clean, tidy and 
in business form." 

(4) Experience in Many Lines. In a commercial 
factory, the helper is sometimes kept busy upon a narrow 
line of work, as washing hoops or cans, and has little chance 

♦From "Advice to Students" by Prof. E. H. Farrington. 



The Cheesemaker's Education. 3 

to learn other parts of the work. At the dairy school, in- 
struction is given in all parts of the work. 

The maker in a factory must do his own work, and also 
be prepared to give advice to his patrons on many subjects 
connected with dairy farming, factory business, etc. The 
dairy school student should therefore try to learn all he can 
about the following subjects, among otjhers. 

(1) How to keep factory and equipment clean and in 

good repair. 

(2) How to erect and operate machinery, shafting, pip- 

ing, etc. 

(3) Best methods of producing clean milk on patrons' 

farms. 

(4) How patrons may make their herds more profitable. 

(5) How to inspect and test milk at the factory intake. 

(6) How to make one or more kinds of cheese. 

(7) How to take care of cheese in the curing room. 

(8) Packing, wrapping, paraffining cheese for shipment. 

(9) How to divide factory profits among patrons. 

(10) The advantages of whey skimming to the patrons. 

(11) The location, arrangement, and equipment of a new 

factory. 

(12) The organization and business management of a 

factory. 

(13) Should a factory be owned by patrons or maker? 

(14) What by-products or side lines are profitable? 

(15) Which pays better, butter or cheesemaking? 

(16) How to judge the quality and faults of cheese, etc. 

(17) How to make prize cheese for cheesemakers' conven- 

tion, State Fair, etc. 
Experienced factorymen, attending a Special Course in 
February for a week or two, have time to study one or two 
chosen subjects, such as milk testing, factory payments, whey 
skimming, starter making, fancy cheesemaking, or cheese 
moisture testing, etc. 

Agricultural students in the four-year college course 
study cheese-making throughout the year, without previous 
factory experience, and learn how to make numerous kinds 
of cheese and related products which are of commercial im- 
portance in this country. These students may begin the 



Cheese Making. 



study at Part II, and make the following from directions 
there given, while also covering Part I in the class room. 



First Half Year 
Classification of cheese varieties. 
Casein with sulphuric acid 
Casein from sour milk 
Wet and dry casein 
Casein from buttermilk 
Cottage cheese from skim milk 
Hand cheese, cooked cheese 
Buttermilk cheese from raw or 

pasteurized cream 
Rennet tests and acid tests 
Neufchatel 
Coulommier 

Soft ripened rennet cheese 
Lunch, isigny, camembert 
Brie, liedertafel 
Curd test, fermentation test 



Second Half Year 
Limburger cheese 
Brick cheese, Edam 
Swiss cheese, block, 
American cheese, whole milk; 

soft or firm, 

granular or milled, 

skim or part skim 
Club and mixed cheese 
Testing cheese for fat 
Testing cheese for moisture 
Inspection of factories (trip) 
Cheese lunch, many kinds, sampled 
Cheese judging and scoring .^tf^aufl 
Primost, whey butter ttt 

Italian skim and whey cheese „2^ 



CHAPTER II. 

PRODUCTION AND CARE OF MILK ON THE FARM. 

(5) Importance of Clean Milk Supply. For the suc- 
cess of the factory it is necessary that the milk produced on 
each farm be kept clean by keeping dirt out of it, and that 
it be properly cooled, and delivered promptly and in good 
condition for cheesemaking. It is the cheesemaker's duty to 
see that these things are done and to show the patron how 
when necessary. The cheesemaker can give the farmer two 
reasons why milk should be clean and sweet when brought 
to the factory, (1) because with defective milk there is sure 
to be a loss either in the yield or quality of the cheese, and 
(2) because the laws of most states prohibit the sale or de- 
livery of any insanitary milk at any factory, under penalty 
of fine and imprisonment. 

The cheesemaker's success in his work depends, more than 
anything else, on his ability to keep his patrons interested in 
improving the milk supply of the factory. 

(6) Clean Milkers and Utensils. The milkers' hands 
should be kept clean and. dry while milking. Milking ma- 
chines, if used, require intelligent and diligent inspection and 




Fig. 3.— Closed top pails should be more generally used. They can be pur- 
chased from dealers, or the ordinary milk pail can be provided with a suitable top 
by any tinsmith. 

cleaning daily, following the directions furnished with the 
machine. A closed top milk pail excludes three-fourths of 
the falling dirt, and is a great help in clean milk production. 
A cloth or cotton batting strainer is the most effective 
kind if kept properly clean, but if not kept clean it becomes 



6 Cheese Making. 

a source of infection and injury to the milk, and on farms 
where this occurs, an all metal strainer is preferable, because 
it is more easily kept clean than a cloth. Immediately after 
use, the milk pails, strainers and cans should be rinsed first 
with cool water, then washed with hot water, a brush, and 
a good washing powder, and rinsed,, and finally scalded or 
steamed thoroughly, and kept in a milk house or other clean 
place until needed. It is not sufficient, as some patrons sup- 
pose, to rinse a milk can out with dish water, or to wipe it 
with a dirty cloth, for such methods leave great numbers of 
germs in the utensils, which will later make the milk sour 
or bad flavored, and injure the cheese. Probably dirty 
utensils spoil milk more frequently than any other one cause. 

A simple device consisting of a covered pan of water and 
an oil or gasoline stove, etc., has been described in Farm- 
ers bulletin 748, from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C, by which cans, pails, strainers, separat- 
ors, bowls, etc., can be steamed in a few minutes on the 
farm. Large factories, and many condensaries and city 
milk buyers wash, steam, and dry all patrons' cans as soon 
as emptied, and require the use of a different set of cans for 
hauling back the whey, etc. Steaming whey in the factory 
whey tank helps greatly in keeping cans clean. 

(7) Clean Cows and Stables.. Barns and yards should 
be kept in such condition that the cows can keep themselves 
reasonably clean. In the stable where cows are milked, there 
should be neither dust falling from the ceiling, nor a wet, 
muddy floor underneath, nor a foul smell in the air. A well 
lighted and ventilated stable, whitewashed once or twice a 
year is essential. 

Clean comfortable quarters and kind treatment are es- 
sential, if cows are to do their best. Some authorities believe 
that milk is secreted to a large extent at the time of milking, 
since the udder has room for only a small portion of the milk 
yielded* by the cow at a milking; when a cow is excited or 
disturbed at that time, she may fail to produce as much milk 
of the same quality as usual. 

Cows should not be obliged to wade through a muddy 
barnyard, or lie down in a filthy stable. If the cow's flanks 
and udder are not caked with mud or manure, a very little 



Production and Care of Milk on the Farm. 7 

brushing or wiping before milking will remove loose hairs 
and dirt, so that these will not fall into the pail. 




Fig. 4. — A section through a quarter of a cow's udder. From a photograph 
(Cornell Univ. Experiment Station). 



All dusty feeds as hay and strong smelling or strong 
flavored feeds as silage should be fed just after milking, 
rather than just before. 



8 Cheese Making. 

(8) Cooling and Holding Milk. The pails of milk are 
carried immediately from the stalls to the milk room and 
strained into milk cans, which are set in the cold water tank. 
If stirred frequently with a dipper, the milk in the cans will 
be cooled to the temperature of the well water, within an 
hour's time after it was drawn from the cow. The tank is 
again filled with cold water before leaving for the night. 

With a tin cooler filled with cold water, placed between 
the strainer and the milk can, milk can be cooled most rap- 
idly. If it is to be hauled any great distance, the morning's 
milk should be cooled, but if the factory is near by, it is often 
delivered without cooling. Never mix warm morning's milk 
with cold night's milk at the farm. 

Aeration can never cool milk sufficiently in warm weather, 
but is likely to cause milk to take up dust and bad odors. 
Under ordinary farm conditions, the aerator is likely to do 
more harm than good, and should not be used. 



CHAPTER III. 

INSPECTION AND TESTS OF MILK AT THE INTAKE. 

(9) Reasons for Inspection. The reasons for careful 
daily inspection of milk at the factory are, (1) that any de- 
fective milk may be detected before it enters the cheese vat, 
and sent back to the farm, together with advice or instruc- 
tions to the farmer as to how he may avoid such trouble next 
time. Proper attention to this is part of the maker's duty 
and protects careful patrons from having their good milk 
injured by mixing with defective milk from a careless patron. 
It also protects both maker and patrons from possible prose- 
cution and fine by official inspectors visiting the factory at 
unexpected times, and finding that unfit milk is being offered 
and accepted. 

(2) Another important reason for inspection is that it gives 
the maker, at the earliest possible moment, a knowledge as 
to what kind of milk he has today, so that he may handle it 
to the best advantage. 

In addition, careful daily inspection of milk impresses the 
patrons with the importance of handling milk properly at the 
farm, and sets them a good example. 

(10) To Prepare for Milk Inspection. Intakes should 
be built so that the maker can step up, examine, and smell 
every can of milk before it is poured into the weigh can, and 
make such other tests as he desires. A great many factories, 
especially the Swiss, brick and Limburger factories, are not 
so built. Intake inspection by the cheesemaker should in- 
clude, first, his own equipment and outer clothing, to- see 
that his overalls, weigh can, strainer, conductor and vat are 
in fit condition, before the patrons come. 

(11) Possible Defects to be Found in Milk. Milk 
inspection is intended to show faulty conditions under which 
milk was produced, stored or delivered, as judged by 

(1) the temperature, color, odor, taste, the presence 
of dirt in the milk, or in the bottom, sides, or shoulder of 
the can, or on the can, wagon, or hauler, 



12 



Cheese Making. 



obtained, as a means of picking out those patrons who bring 
the unclean milk causing the trouble. 

An outfit may be purchased of dealers, for holding 6 or 12 
milk samples. Most factories have more than 12 patrons, 
and the need for using the curd test often arises suddenly, 
when there is no time to send for an outfit. In such cases, 
an iron wash tub and a set of two or three dozen pint fruit 
jars can be obtained at any country store, and will answer 
the purpose. 

The tub, jars, and covers are cleaned, and scalded thor- 
oughly with boiling water or by running steam into the tub- 




Fig. 5.- — -Wisconsin Curd Test Outfit of the form sold by dealers. 



ful of water containing the jars and lids. The jars are then 
covered and set in a clean place near the intake ready for 
use. A portion of each patron's milk is caught in a pint jar 
held over the weigh can, and the jar is marked with the 
patron's number. This may be done on the metal cover, or 
the surface of the" jar may be roughened at one spot by rub- 
bing with a wet file, and the number written there with a 
black lead pencil. When all of the samples are taken, the 
jars are set in a tub of water at about 110 degrees for a short 
time, until the milk is raised to a temperature of 95-100 
degrees, F. Ten drops of rennet extract are added to each 
jar in order, mixing it through the milk by stirring with a 
thermometer or case knife, which has been just previously 
scalded in hot water. After a few minutes standing quiet, 
the milk in each jar thickens, and the curd is then finely 



Inspection of Milk at the Intake. 



13 




Fig. 6. 
Curd Test. 



-Curds from milk of different quality as produced in the Wisconsin 



Upper figure, curd from a good milk. Large, irregular, mechanical holes. 

Middle figure, curd from tainted milk. Numerous small ""pin holes" due 
to gas formed by harmful germs in the milk. 

Lower figure, curd from a foul mik. When received this milk showed no 
abnormal symptoms, but the foul odor and spongy texture appeared in six to 
eightihours due to the presence of filth germs. 

By means of this test, the factory operator can determine which patron 
brings the gassy milk causing defective cheese. 



16 



Cheese Making. 



test immediately so that he can see it, in comparison with 
those previously taken. 

The sediment discs, showing the dirt collected from one 
pint of milk, are very effective and convincing, as well as 
surprising to the patrons. Where the test is repeated at 
irregular intervals, about once a week or oftener, an improve- 
ment in cleanliness is the result, as no one likes to have the 
dirtiest milk test more than once. 

The sediment on the filter disc may consist mainly of. fine 
grained black sand, where cows have access to a marsh, or 




Fig. 9. — Sediment tests from different grades ~of milk. 



may be yellow in color, indicating manure, or sometimes 
white and curdy due to a sick cow. A slight yellowish tint 
may be seen, due to the color of milk and butter fat. 

In very dirty sediment tests, particles of straw, chaff, 
silage, manure, hair, sand, etc., can often be seen. 

Dirty milk at the farm may be strained through cotton 
batting or flannel, removing all sediment, so as to give a 
clean sediment test, and yet contain the soluble material and 
the bacteria which can not be thus filtered out of milk. 

The sediment test has been widely used with good suc- 
cess by inspectors, instructors, and factorymen. 



CHAPTER IV. 

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE RIPENESS OF MILK 
IN THE CHEESE VAT. 

(18) The Growth of Germs in Milk. Bacteria grow 
rapidly in warm milk. Thus at 68 degrees F. one germ 
in milk may produce over 6,000 germs in 24 hours, while at 
50 degrees F. there may be only 4 or 5 produced. On this 



-I /-■"■/ 







Progeny of 
a Single Germ © 
■"twelve hours. 



Fig. 10. — At temperatures above 55 degrees, the growth of bacteria in milk is 
rapid. From Wis. bul. 

account, milk should either be used immediately after milk- 
ing for cheesemaking, as at Swiss and Limburger cheese 
factories where milk is delivered and cheese made twice daily; 
or else the night's milk should be promptly cooled and kept 
cool until delivered in the morning (section 8). The lactic 
acid germs more or less rapidly change milk sugar into lactic 
acid, and thus sour the milk. 

(19) The Acidity of Fresh Milk. Although perfectly 
fresh milk contains no lactic acid, yet it may show by the 
acidimeter about .12-15% acidity if low in solids (as from 

3 to 3.5% fat) and .16-19% acidity if high in solids (as from 

4 to 6% of fat), this acidity being due to the casein, mineral 
salts, etc., normally present in fresh milk. 



20 Cheese Making. 

(24) Effect of Adding Starter. Immediately after 
adding starter, and heating to 86 .degrees, another acid test 
or rennet test may be made, and the milk will be found to 
be a little higher in percent of acid, or lower in time required 
to thicken with rennet, than before the starter was added, 
due to the lactic acid contained in the starter. The lactic 
germs in the starter will usually require an hour or more to 
begin producing acid after they are added to the vat. If 
repeated tests, made every few minutes after adding starter, 
show that the ripeness is steadily increasing, this is due to 
the lactic germs which were in the milk, before starter was 
added. 



CHAPTER V. 

A GOOD STARTER FOR CHEESEMAKING. 

(25) Qualities of a Good Starter. A first class lactic 
starter for creamery use will usually be good also for cheese- 
making, although a poor starter is more likely to injure the 
quality of cheese than of butter. 

A good starter should have a pleasant, mild, acid flavor 
and odor, as a sharp, sour flavor like vinegar is likely to show 
also in the cheese. The texture should be free from gas holes, 
and should not be wheyed off (at 72 degrees), but smooth and 
creamy in order that when stirred into the vat, the lactic 
germs may be easily distributed through the milk and not 
retained in lumps of curd. A starter contains the largest 
number of living, active lactic germs when its acidity is about 
.6-7%, and it has just recently thickened at 72 degrees, F. 
It is then in the best condition either for adding to the cheese 
vat, or for transfer to another lot of milk for starter making. 
With proper handling, a good starter can be kept in daily use 
without deterioration for a long time, sometimes for months 
or years. For this purpose, the best rule is to transfer it 
every day into some freshly pasteurized milk. 

(26) Materials for Making Starter. To prepare 1 
percent of starter for use with 5,000 lbs. of milk, obtain (1) 
55-60 lbs. of good, clean, fresh whole milk, and (2) a pint 
of first class sour milk, or starter, or a commercial culture of 
lactic acid germs. 

(27) Select Milk for Starter Making. To get suit- 
able milk for starter making, it is best to select the fresh, 
morning's milk from the best patron, and pour this directly 
into shot gun cans, or other cans used for starter making. 
Milk taken from the cheese vat after all patrons have come 
is not so good, because some gas or taint producing germs 
may have been present in the milk from one farm or an- 
other. 

Whey from today's cheese is not good to make tomor- 
row's starter with, because it may carry over harmful germs 



24 Cheese Making. 

and to let it stand unopened and unshaken for several days, 
after which it is examined to see if it has developed gas 
bubbles, or a bad flavor, or has wheyed off. 

(34) Commercial Culture For Starter Making. In 
addition to a supply of good starter milk (section 27) a good 
culture of lactic germs must also be provided. This may be 
a portion of yesterday's starter, or it may be obtained either 
(1) from a neighboring cheese factory, or by purchase from 
a dealer in factory supplies, or (2) as a "natural" starter. 

Dealers supply commercial cultures in small bottles as 
"liquid" or as a "dry" powder. The liquid culture should 
have stood long enough to curdle in the bottle, but should 
be used for starter making while fresh as shown by the date 
on the bottle. A dry culture on the other hand will keep in 
good condition in the bottle for a somewhat longer time, but 
may be slower in growing when first used, as the drying of 
the culture may kill a part of the germs present. Full direc- 
tions are printed on the bottle, for growing these cultures for 
one to three days in quart jars before using them in a large 
can of starter. 

(35) Natural Starter. To obtain a "natural" starter, 
scald out several pint fruit jars with lids, carry these to a 
nearby farm selected for cleanliness. With clean hands and 
other precautions to exclude dirt (sections 6, 7) draw some 
milk from a clean cow. Throw away the first two or three 
streams of milk from the teat, and then milk directly into 
one of the jars. Repeat this with several jars and different 
cows. Cover each jar to exclude dust, and take all the jars 
to the factory. Keep them covered at about 95-100 degrees 
until the milk thickens, which may require 12 to 48 hours. 
Reject any curds which are gassy or wheyed off, and select 
the best flavored of the remaining curds, if satisfactory, to be 
transferred to some pasteurized milk for starter making. 
Sometimes all of the samples thus taken at a barn may turn 
out unsatisfactory, and another set may be taken from an- 
other source. The commercial culture is 'commonly pre- 
ferred as quicker, and surer to be satisfactory. 



CHAPTER VI. 

TESTS FOR RIPENESS OF MILK, WHEY, 
STARTER, ETC. 

(36) Odor and Taste. By the odor or taste of milk at 
the intake, or of milk or whey in the vat, or of starter, an 
experienced factoryman can judge whether it is fresh and 
sweet or how ripe it is. Cheesemakers and students should 
learn to judge the condition of milk, whey, etc., by its odor, 
tasting it also when necessary. 

(37) The Acidimeter or "Mann's Acid Test." (a) This 
test is very generally used in Canadian cheese factories, and 
is taught at Dairy Schools along with other tests. It has 
been used with satisfaction by a number of leading cheese- 
makers in the United States. 

The test is made in a variety of modified forms. The 
most practical method is probably the following, which is 
employed at the Wisconsin Dairy School and elsewhere: 

(a) A 17.6 cc. pipette, the same as used for the Babcock 
test, is filled to the mark with the milk or whey, etc., to be 
tested, and is then emptied into a white porcelain, cup, 
preferably wide and flat bottomed rather than narrow and 
deep, (b) Two drops of indicator solution are then added to 
the cup. The indicator solution contains 10 grams of phenol- 
phthalein powder dissolved in a quart of denatured alcohol. 
Sometimes the more expensive 95% grain alcohol is used 
for the purpose, dissolving the powder completely in one 
pint of the alcohol, and then adding slowly about two-thirds 
of a pint of distilled water or condensed steam, or even rain 
water, but not adding enough water to make the liquid turn 
milky white. 

(c) From a burette holding 10 cubic centimeters, or more, 
and graduated in one-tenth cc. divisions (or sometimes in 
one-fifth cc. divisions), a solution of "neutralizer" or "tenth- 
normal alkali" is run in a rapid series of drops into the milk 
in the cup. As the first drops of "neutralizer" enter the milk 



26 



Cheese Making. 



a red color is produced, but this quickly disappears on shak- 
ing the cup held in the right hand, or stirring the milk with 
a rod or thermometer. The stirring and the addition of 
neutralizer rapidly by drops goes on until the last drop added 
produces a faint pink color which spreads through the milk 
and does not disappear on thorough mixing. A convenient 
color standard in a glass tube is on the market. 

(d) The quantity of the neutralizer solution used is read 
from the burette, and (if 17.6 cc. milk was used) is divided 
by 20 to obtain the percentage of acidity in the milk. Thus 
fresh milk may require 2.8 cc, which divided by 20, gives 
14/100% as the acidity. Milk for American cheesemaking 
should not take over 4.0 cc, equal to .20% acidity. Whey or 
curd drippings or overripe starter may use up to 16 to 20 
cc, equal to .8 or 1.0% acidity. 

(e) Sometimes, and especially with sour material, it is 
better to use a 9 cc. pipette, instead of 17.6 cc, thus saving 




Fig. 11. — Nafis Acid Test. 



Tests for Ripeness of Milk. 27 

half of the neutralize!-; and the volume of neutralize!* used is 
divided by 10 instead of 20 to get the percentage acidity. 

The speed and convenience of the acid test is much 
greater if a modern form of the test, such as the Nafis, 
Marschall or similar form, is used in which the burette and 
neutralizer bottle are connected by a tube, through which 
the neutralizer runs, instead of being poured by hand into 
a separate burette. 

(38) Neutralizer. The neutralizer is commonly a solu- 
tion of lye of exactly the right strength, and can be bought 
from a dealer ready made at $1 per gallon or in powder form, 
to be dissolved in one gallon of soft water. The solution 
should be kept in a rubber stoppered bottle or jug to protect 
it from the air. A half pint rubber stoppered bottle may be 
filled from the gallon jug and kept on the table for filling the 
burette, thus protecting the main bulk of the solution from 
frequent exposure to the air. 

To prepare large quantities of tenth-normal neutralizer, 
for use in a school, or to supply a number of factories, dis- 
solve 1 Yz lbs. of pure stick caustic soda in 35 lbs. of distilled 
water in a large bottle and mix thoroughly. This solution 
is then compared with a normal strength solution of hydro- 
chloric acid, purchased by the half gallon from a dealer in 
chemical supplies, and is then diluted exactly to normal 
strength, so that 10 cc. of the soda solution will exactly 
neutralize 10 cc. of the normal acid. 100 cc. of this normal 
alkali solution diluted with distilled water to 1000 cc. and 
thoroughly mixed gives a tenth-normal neutralizer, for use 
in testing milk. 

(39) Farrington's Alkaline Tablets. One thousand 
alkaline tablets, costing $2.00, dissolved in soft water, make 
3880 cc. of tenth-normal solution. (One gallon equals 3785 
cc.) The "improved" tablets now being sold retain their 
strength both when dry and also in solution. 

The cartridge shell test is made by dissolving one tablet in 
one ounce of soft water, and mixing a small measure full 
(as a No. 10 brass cartridge shell) of this solution with an 
equal volume of milk in a cup. If the mixture remains pink, 
the acidity of the milk is less than .20%. If it turns white, 
the milk is over .20% acidity and is not fit for cheesemaking. 



28 Cheese Making. 

This is a convenient intake test to show to patrons, when 
they bring overripe milk. 

(40) Alcohol Test. When 2 cc. of 68% (by volume) 
alcohol are added to 2 cc. of milk in a test tube, and gently 
shaken, the appearance of curdling may be taken to indicate 
that the milk has ripened considerably or is abnormal in 
other respects, so that it should be returned to the farm. 
This test is used mainly in Europe. 

(41) Rennet Tests Measure Ripeness of Milk. Sour 
or partly ripe milk thickens more quickly with rennet than 
does sweet milk. By mixing a measured quantity of milk 
at 86 degrees, with a measured amount of rennet extract, and 
noting on the watch the exact number of minutes or seconds 
required for thickening, the ripeness of the milk can be de- 
termined. The Marschall test, Monrad test, and Harris 
test are used by cheesemakers for this purpose. By testing a 
vat of milk every few minutes, the maker learns how fast 
it is ripening, and judges when he should add rennet to the vat. 

In making rennet tests, as a measure of the ripeness of 
milk, it is necessary to use only normal cows' milk, and to 
work at the specified temperature, as with defective milk or 
at varying temperatures, the rennet test results will not be 
comparable with each other. 

(42) Milk Thickens Most Rapidly at About 106 
Degrees. The relative time required to thicken milk with 
rennet at different temperatures, all other conditions being 
the same, is shown in the table. 

68F 77F 86F 95F 100F 102F 104F 105. 8F 108F 113F 117F 118 120 122 
555 225 141 116 107 104 102 100 102 112 128 144 167 200 

For cheesemaking purposes, milk is always thickened be- 
tween 68 F. and 118 F., and in most cases between 86 and 
and 95 F. For pasteurized milk, see (217). 

(43) Dissolved Substances in Milk Affect Coagula- 
tion. The addition of almost any soluble substance to milk 
delays or hastens its coagulation with rennet. 

The addition of water in moderate amounts to milk at 
the farm makes it necessary to use more extract at the 
factory. 

The addition of formaldehyde to milk at first delays 
coagulation and later entirely prevents it. 



Tests for Ripeness of Milk. 



29 



Higher acidity of milk produced either by ripening or by 
addition, of an acid causes it to coagulate more quickly with 
rennet. This fact is the basis of the use of rennet tests. 

The addition of soluble lime salts as calcium chloride to 
milk hastens rennet coagulation, while common salt or 
alkalis delay it. Some makers add salt to milk supposing 
it possible thereby to avoid gassy cheese. 

Pasteurization of milk, or boiling, followed by cooling, 
greatly delays coagulation, but the addition of an acid or a 
soluble lime salt restores the ability to thicken with rennet. 

Milk from high testing cows, as Guernseys or Jerseys 
often thickens quicker than low testing milk. 

Feeding cows feeds which are low or high in lime content 
does not affect the lime content of their milk, as a cow will 
put the proper amount of lime in her milk even if necessary to 
take the lime from her own body. Milk containing colos- 
trum, and often the milk of sick cows will not curdle normally 
with rennet. 

(44) Marschall Rennet Test. The Marschall test cup 
is filled above the zero mark with milk from the vat at 86 
degrees, and is set on the corner of the vat. The milk runs 
slowly through the small hole in the bottom of the cup. A 




Fig. 12. — Marschall Rennet Test. The most convenient and widely used form 
offrennet test. 



30 



Cheese Making. 



scale of figures on the inside of the cup shows, approximately 
in minutes, how long the milk has been running out. 

A small bottle is filled to the mark with about 20 cc. of 
cool water, and 1 cc. of rennet extract is added, rinsing the 
pipette by drawing up the water once or twice. 

When the milk in the test cup has run down until the 
zero mark at the top of the scale shows at the top of the 
milk, the diluted extract is quickly added and stirred in 
thoroughly for about half a minute with a thermometer or 
spoon. The thermometer may be left in the milk and read 
after the test to see whether the temperature has fallen. 

As soon as the milk thickens in the cup, it closes the hole 
and stops running out. The reading on the scale at the top 
of the milk may be \y 2 or 2 for ripe milk, 2y 2 to 33^ for 
moderately ripe milk, or 4 to 5 or more for sweet milk. Al- 
ways clean the cup and the hole well before making a test. 
With very sweet milk at a Swiss cheese factory 2 cc. of rennet 
extract may be used instead of 1 cc. 

(45) The Monrad Rennet Test. For this test, 5 cc.of 
rennet extract are measured with a pipette into a 50 cc. flask, 
containing some clean cool water. The pipette is rinsed by 
drawing up the water, and the flask is then filled to the 50 cc. 




o 




Fig. 13. — The Monrad Rennet Test. 



Tests for Ripeness of Milk. 



31 



mark on the neck with water. The contents are mixed 
thoroughly by shaking. 

One hundred sixty cc. of milk from the vat, at 86 degrees, 
are measured by means of a tall, tin cylinder, and poured 
into a small pan, set in a larger pan containing water at about 
88 degrees to keep the milk at 86 degrees. While stirring the 
milk with a thermometer, quickly add a 5 cc. pipette full 
of the diluted rennet to the milk in the pan, and note by the 
watch the exact second when the addition was made. Stir 
in the rennet quickly for half a minute or less, and at the 
same time add a few particles of charcoal dust. This dust 
shows when the milk thickens, by suddenly stopping its 
movement around the pan, appearing to move backward a 
trifle as it stops, when the time is again read by the watch. 
The exact number of seconds required for thickening may 
be 35 to 45 for quite ripe milk, or as much as 60 seconds for 
moderately ripe milk, or 85 seconds or more for sweet milk. 

To deliver the diluted rennet quickly, the pipette should 
have a wide tip, or the liquid should be run out of its wide 
upper end turned downward for this purpose. 

(46) The Harris Rennet Test. In this test, 8 (or in 
some cases 10) ounces of milk at 86 degrees are taken up 




_, lOoz. 
Fig. 14. — The Harris Rennet Test. 



32 Cheese Making. 

from the vat in a conical glass graduate, and y 2 dram of extract 
is added at a time noted by the watch. The extract is stirred 
in well with a thermometer for 5 or 10 seconds, and the time 
is again noted on the watch when the milk first thickens. 

(47) To Obtain Accurate Rennet Tests. Important 
precautions in making rennet tests: (1) To have the milk 
always at the same temperature, by the same thermometer, 
(2) to use the same lot of extract in a series of tests, as differ- 
ent extracts may vary in strength, (3) to use the same meas- 
uring vessels, as these may vary slightly in size or capacity, 
(4) to fill pipettes, etc., so that the bottom of the curved 
fluid surface is exactly on the mark. 

Neglect of these precautions may cause irregular results. 
Tests made at different factories, even on the same milk, may 
vary somewhat, because the different sets of equipment may 
vary slightly in size. But at any one factory, tests made with 
the precautions listed above, will show clearly the ripeness of 
the milk, and its variations from day to day, due to differ- 
ences in the way it has been handled by patrons, etc. 

(48) Experiments Using The Rennet Tests.* In 
order to make a comparison of rennet tests with each other, 
and to study conditions affecting rennet curdling, a can of 
milk or skim milk should be provided, which should be fresh 
and cooled to the temperature of well water or below, in 
order to avoid ripening during the hour of work, so that com- 
parable results can be obtained. 

(a) Test duplicate portions of the same lot of milk with 
the acidimeter, the Marschall test, the Monrad test, and the 
Harris test. While performing this experiment with the 
Marschall test, observe the time in minutes and seconds on 
the watch, from the addition of rennet until the milk stream 
stops running. Does the scale of figures inside the Marschall 
test give the time in minutes or not? Are all Marschall tests 
alike in this? 

After completing each test as directed above, find how 
much milk (or water) the measure used will hold, by means 
of a 100 cc. or a 500 cc. measuring cylinder. 



*Note. All students in the class may work at the same time using milk taken 
from one large can, the students passing along from one table to another, on which 
the different test outfits are arranged. Be very careful not to pour any milk back 
into the large supply can, and thus avoid accidents, such as getting a little rennet 
into it. 



Tests for Ripeness of Milk. 33 

In the Marschall test, how much larger is the volume of 
milk used than the volume of rennet? Answer this question 
also for the Monrad test and for the Harris test. 

Which test uses the largest proportion of milk to rennet? 
Which test uses the smallest proportion of milk to rennet? 
How much larger is this proportion for one test than for the 
other? 

How much longer time is required by the watch for thick- 
ening milk by the one test than by the other? 

Does the time required for coagulation depend upon the 
proportion of rennet added to the milk? Every student 
should complete this experiment in good order, and write it 
up clearly in the note book. 

The remaining experiments described below may be 
performed by advanced students, so far as time permits, or 
may be postponed, or omitted entirely, as directed by the 
instructor. 

(b) Using the Monrad test, make several tests on milk 
from the can, at different temperatures, 65, 75, 85, 95, 105, 
115, 125 degrees F., to determine at what temperature 
coagulation occurs most quickly. 

(c) Heat some milk in a flask to about 180 degrees over 
a flame or by placing in boiling water, and then cool quickly 
in cold water to 86 degrees. Make a Monrad test. Does 
pasteurization interfere with rennet coagulation? 

(d) To another portion of milk pasteurized as in (c) and 
cooled to 40-50 degrees F., add from a burette 1 cc. of N/1 
hydrochloric acid per 100 cc. of milk, while shaking or stirring 
the milk vigorously to prevent curdling by the acid. Heat 
to 86 degrees and make a Monrad test. Does acid restore 
rennet action to pasteurized milk? 

(e) To portions of milk from the can, measured out for 
the Monrad test, add different amounts of calcium chloride, 
3^, x /i, 1, 2, 5, 10 grams, and then complete the tests as usual. 
Try also different amounts of common salt, of borax, or of 
sodium carbonate in similar tests. At the end of a series of 
tests, repeat the first one a second time to make sure that 
gradual ripening of the milk while standing has not inter- 
fered with the results. 



34 Cheese Making. 

(f) Acidulate different portions of milk at 40-50 degrees 
with different amounts of N /l hydrochloric acid, and after 
heating to 86 degrees, make Monrad tests, to show the effect 
of varying acidity on rennet action. 

(g) Add 5% of starter to a pail of milk, mix well and heat 
to 100 F., to ripen. Cool immediately a small portion of 
the milk to 86 F., for a Monrad -test, and test other portions 
at half hour intervals, at the same times making acidimeter 
tests. Which test detects small differences of acidity with 
greater certainty? 

(h) Make several rennet tests, using different lots of 
rennet extract, fresh, or old, from different makers. 

(i) Compare rennet extract and pepsin solution by mak- 
ing a Monrad test or Marschall test with each, using sweet 
milk for both, and afterward repeat the trials using milk at 
about .20-22% acidity for each. Which is better for sweet 
milk, rennet or pepsin? 

(k) Dilute some extract with water for the Monrad test, 
and let it stand for an hour or until next day. Then dilute 
a second flask of the same extract, and immediately make 
rennet tests, using first the freshly diluted extract, and 
afterward the other lot. Does diluted rennet extract lose 
strength on standing 24 hours? 

(1) In a test tube, mix (1) 1 cc. of N/1 caustic soda solu- 
tion, (2) 1 cc. of N /l hydrochloric acid, and (3) 5 cc. of rennet 
extract, mixing well after each addition. Use 5 cc. of the 
mixture for a Monrad rennet test. 

Now make a second mixture, placing in a test tube (1) 
1 cc. N /l alkali, (2) 5 cc. rennet extract, and after mixing well, 
add (3) 1 cc. N /l hydrochloric acid. Make a rennet test, 
and explain why the results differ from the preceding. 

(m) From a rennet test made on milk from a vat, figure 
in what time the milk should begin to thicken when the vat 
is set, and compare the figure thus obtained with the ob- 
served result. Explain any difference. 

(n) Resistance of rennet to heat. Place 5 cc. of extract 
in a 50 cc. flask, by means of the pipette. Heat the flask in a 
pan of water at 100 degrees for 5 minutes. Then fill the 
flask to the mark with cold water, mix well and make a 
Monrad test. 



Tests for Ripeness of Milk. 35 

Repeat with 5 cc. of extract, heated to 110, 120, or 130 
degrees. At what temperature does the rennet lose about 
half its strength? All of its strength? In these tests the 
extract was heated before diluting. 

Diluted rennet may be tested as to its resistance to heat, 
as follows: Dilute 5 cc. of extract to 50 cc. in the flask and 
mix well. Transfer about 10 cc. of diluted extract to another 
flask, heat to 100, 110, 120, or 130 degrees for 5 minutes, in 
hot water, then cool the flask in cold water, and make a 
Monrad test using 5 cc. of the liquid. At what temperature 
does diluted rennet extract lose about half of its strength? 
All of its strength? 

(49) Advantages of Rennet Tests, and AcftHmeter 
Tests. The advantage of the acidimeter for use in the 
cheese factory comes from the fact that it can be applied to 
the milk at the intake, and also to the whey or the drippings 
from the curd at every stage of the cheesemaking process. 
The test is made quickly, and can be applied at any temper- 
ature, as the result is not affected by temperature. Makers 
who have become thoroughly familiar with it recommend it 
highly. 

The rennet tests do not require a special "neutralizer" 
or "indicator" solution, but are made with the same rennet 
extract which the maker buys in a jug for cheesemaking. 

The Marschall test cup makes the use of a watch un- 
necessary, and the maker can read the test at any time. The 
Monrad and Harris tests require a watch, with second hand, 
but can be made with simple and inexpensive measures and 
utensils. 

The rennet test, with the time measured in seconds, will 
detect small changes in the ripeness of milk more readily than 
the acidimeter. 

(50A) Comparison of Rennet Tests and Acidimeter 
Results. In the Marschall test, about 800 cc. of milk and 
1 cc. of rennet are used, so that the milk volume is 800 times 
larger than the rennet. In the Monrad test, the volume of 
milk is 320 times larger than that of the extract used, and in 
the Harris test 128 times larger. 

The smaller the volume of milk used to 1 of rennet, the 
quicker the milk will thicken, so that the time of thickening 



36 



Cheese Making. 



is shorter in proportion for the Monrad test than for the 
Marschall test while the Harris test is yet shorter in time 
required. On this basis, a comparison of the different tests 
can be made, with a fair degree of accuracy, as shown in the 
table. 







Proportions 


Time for 


Name 


Ripe 


Medium 


Sweet Milk 




800-1 
320- 1 
128-1 


2 min. 

48 sec. 

19 sec. 

20% acid 


2 j min. 

60 sec. 

24 sec. 

18%) acid 














s Acid test 


16% acid 









(50B) Several Uses for the Rennet Test. Rennet 
tests are used most commonly to measure the ripeness of 
milk in the cheese vat, but may also be used to compare the 
strength of different lots of extract, as an old lot and a 
newly purchased lot. This is done by making a test on a 
given vat of milk using the old lot of rennet, and immedi- 
ately making another test with the same milk and all condi- 
tions the same but using the new lot of rennet. It is well 
to make two or three such tests with each lot of rennet, as 
duplicate tests agreeing well with each other give the maker 
greater confidence in his results. 

Another use is to occasionally test samples of each 
patron's milk, collected at the intake in separate jars, to 
determine whether any abnormal milk is being delivered, 
which will not curdle well with rennet. 

(51) Hot Iron Test. The acidity of curd is measured 
also by the length of fine silky threads formed on contact 
with the hot iron. For this test a clean iron bar or piece of 
gas pipe, two or three feet long is heated at one end, under 
the boiler or in a flame, so that it is scorching hot, while the 
other end can be held in the hand. 

A small block of curd with a smooth cut surface is taken 
in the right hand, and a suitable hot place on the iron is 
selected by touching a corner of the curd to the iron at spots 
between the middle and the hot end. The instant blackening 
of the curd indicates too high temperature for the test, and 
where the curd sticks but does not blacken at all the iron 
is too cold. Where the curd sticks and turns dark brown or 
black in about 5-10 seconds the temperature of the iron is 



Tests for Ripeness of Milk. 37 

about right. The flat surface of the curd block is applied 
to the iron at this point for two or three seconds, and then 
drawn steadily away, noting the length of the fine, not 
coarse, threads at the time when most of them have broken 
in two. By resting the iron and the hand on a brick, the curd 
can be moved steadily, and the maximum length of threads 
observed, depending on the acid in the curd. The whey is 
drawn when the threads are about 1 /8 inch long or less, and 
the curd is salted when the threads are % to 2 inches long, 
according to the cheesemaker's choice. 



CHAPTER VII. 

CALF STOMACHS, RENNET, PEPSIN, ETC. 

(52) Save Calf Stomachs. The former supply of calf 
stomachs from Bavaria being cut off, cheesemakers, farmers 
and butchers should see that none is wasted, but all pre- 
served for use in cheesemaking. Directions for preserving 
calf stomachs in suitable condition for shipment and use can 
be obtained on request from the Marschall Dairy Laboratory, 
Madison, Wis., or from The Chris. Hansen Laboratory, 
Little Falls, New York, or others who make rennet extract 
in large quantities, and are always ready to buy stomachs in 
good condition. 

(53) Preservation of Stomachs. To obtain stomachs 
having the greatest strength for cheesemaking, the calves 
should be milk fed exclusively, 2 weeks or more of age, and 
hungry for about 10 hours when butchered. Calves shipped 




Leave & small part of the book on 



Fig. 15.— Calf Stomach. Cutoff the fourth stomach from the third stomach, 
so as not to lose any of the upper end, which is most valuable. 

a long distance by freight are inferior for this purpose. As 
soon as butchered, the rennet or fourth stomach is removed 
immediately, with care to retain all of its upper end, where 
the food enters, as this part is strongest in coagulating power. 
The stomach is squeezed to expel its contents, and any ad- 
hering fat or other tissue is taken off of the outer surface. 
The inside should not be washed. The ends may be tied with 
string, the stomach blown full of air, and hung up in a cool 
airy place, protected from flies, to dry for several days. When 
well dried, they are folded flat, packed in bundles, and 
shipped in boxes. 



Calf Stomachs, Rennet Extracts. 39 

Instead of blowing full of air, the stomachs may be split 
open, stretched, sprinkled with plenty of dry salt, and left 
on an inclined board to drain and dry, with occasional 
stretching and salting. The well salted and drained stomachs 
may be shipped to the buyer when a sufficient number are 
collected. 

(54) The Making of Rennet Extract. As American 
cheesemakers now generally prefer to buy commercial ex- 
tract in kegs or jugs, the process of making will be described 
only briefly. The dried, salted stomachs are chopped up in 
a shredding machine, and put to soak in salt brine con- 
taining also some boric acid as a preservative. After soaking 
several days, more salt is added, and the liquid is filtered 
clear, and stored in a cool, dark place. After sufficient 
ageing, it is tested and brought to a definite strength for sale 
to the cheesemaker. 

If rennet extract is made by the cheesemaker at the fac- 
tory every few days, the different lots vary greatly in strength 
and there is more or less trouble and waste in using it, as 
well as in the making, while it is impossible to make satis- 
factory rennet tests with extract varying in strength from 
day to day. For these reasons most makers prefer to buy 
extract of good and uniform quality from a manufacturer or 
dealer, two or three times a year. 

(55) Keeping Quality of Rennet. When first made, 
rennet extract loses strength slowly during the first month 
or two, but after that it keeps its strength with only very 
slight loss for a long period. On that account, extract makers 
store it at the factory for the first few months, and bring it 
to standard strength before it is sold. 

Rennet extract keeps its strength better in the dark than 
in the light, and is therefore commonly sold in jugs, kegs, or 
brown bottles. It keeps better when cool, and is therefore 
stored in the coolest part of the factory. Heated for a time 
to 140 degrees, the extract loses its strength quickly, and 
less rapidly at 120 degrees. In neutral solution, it will stand 
heating better than in acid solution but it cannot be sterilized 
by heat without entire loss of strength. Therefore rennet 
extract is best sterilized, when necessary, by addition of 
formalin. Dry rennet powder can be sterilized by heat. 



40 Cheese Making. 

Diluted rennet extract loses strength rapidly, hence it is 
diluted only when needed for use. Never pour water into 
the jug or keg of extract. 

The addition of alkali or alkaline substances of any kind 
to rennet almost instantly destroys its Coagulating power. 
Hence vessels in which extract is handled should be free from 
soap or washing powder. The glass graduate used for 
measuring cheese color, which is a strongly alkaline liquid, 
should not be used also for extract without thorough wash- 
ing. Separate graduates are preferable. 

(56) Other Rennet Produets. Beside rennet extract 
there are also in the market rennet powder put up in tin cans, 
and rennet tablets or junket tablets. The powder is dissolved 
in water and added to the milk. The tablets can be bought 
in small size suitable for a quart of milk, or in large size for 
100 lbs. or more of milk. These products keep well and are 
especially useful where cheese is made only occasionally. 

A dozen dried calf stomachs are often tied up in a roll, 
called a "wurst," or are sometimes chopped fine and packed 
in a pasteboard tube, for use by Swiss cheesemakers, who cut 
off an inch or more daily as required for making whey rennet 
(section 61). 

(57) Pepsin as a Rennet Substitute. On account of 
the high price of stomachs and rennet extract, large quan- 
tities of pepsin made from hog stomachs from the packing 
houses have been sold as a substitute, either in the form of 
fine powder, or coarse powder, or in thin scales called "scale" 
pepsin, or in solution. The dry pepsin is weighed out by the 
cheesemaker at the rate of about 34 ounce per thousand 
pounds of milk, or is sometimes measured as 34 ounce by 
by weight of the different dry products will occupy Yi to % 
ounce by volume in a glass graduate. The dry pepsin is dis- 
solved in luke warm water, and the solution is added to the 
milk in place of rennet extract. 

The solutions of pepsin more recently offered for sale are 
more convenient to handle at the cheese factory, as they can 
be measured out like rennet extract in a graduate, in place 
of weighing the powder and dissolving in water. 

Before pepsin came into use as a milk coagulant, its prin- 
cipal use was as a medicine to aid digestion in the stomach, 



Calf Stomachs, Rennet Extracts. 41 

and its strength as a digestive agent marked on the bottle, 
1-3000, meant that 1 gram of the pepsin was capable of 
digesting 3000 grams of boiled white of egg, under the con- 
ditions of the U. S. P. test. It was soon observed that dif- 
ferent pepsin products, labeled 1-3000, differed widely among 
themselves in their power to coagulate milk, and that pepsin 
intended for cheesemakers' use should be tested for its action 
on milk instead of on egg white. 

As a substitute for rennet, pepsin is not altogether satis- 
factory. If milk is ripened to about .20% acidity, 34 ounce 
of good dry pepsin will thicken the milk about as soon as 3 J/£ 
ounces of rennet extract, but where sweeter milk is used, as 
in the making of Swiss, Limburger, and at many factories 
making brick or American cheese, this quantity of pepsin 
does not thicken the milk so well as does the rennet extract. 
Swiss makers are therefore using pepsin little or not at all. 

(58) Rennet and Pepsin Mixtures. If 1 gallon of 
rennet extract costing $5.00 will thicken 32,000 lbs. of milk, 
and 8 ounces of dry pepsin will do the same, at a cost of 
$2.50, it is clear that the pepsin is the cheaper, but for sweet 
milk it is not so satisfactory. On this account, mixtures of 
pepsin solution with rennet extract have been put on the 
market by manufacturers, as an improvement over pepsin 
alone, but costing less than rennet alone, and these are used 
with satisfaction by many cheesemakers. 

(59) Other Substitutes for Rennet. In past cen- 
turies, cheesemakers have made use of the stomachs of 
lambs, hares, kids, for thickening milk, and also the juices of 
certain plants, as the thistle, and of the leaves of the fig tree 
and in more recent times a number of plant juices have been 
found to have milk curdling properties. None of these sub- 
stitutes has found practical use in recent years. 

(60) Standard Strength of Rennet Extract. The 
standard is difficult to state in exact terms, but 3 ounces of a 
full strength fresh extract has been known to thicken 1000 
lbs. of perfectly fresh, sweet milk in 45 minutes, at 86 F., or 
1000 lbs. of milk of .18% acidity in 15 minutes, at 86 de- 
grees, F. 

(61) Making Whey Rennet. Swiss cheese makers do 
not commonly use commercial rennet extract, but make whey 



42 Cheese Making. 

rennet daily, as needed for use. For this purpose, dried, 
blown rennets (53) are purchased by the thousand at the 
beginning of the season. Two dozen stomachs are examined 
carefully, and any dirty, or foul smelling parts, as well as the 
useless lower ends of the stomachs, are removed. The 
stomachs are rolled together in the form of a sausage or 
"wurst" 1 Y2 to 3 inches in diameter, and 1 or 2 feet long. A 
piece of twine is wrapped spirally around them, binding them 
together tightly. If moistened with a little salt water, the 
stomachs pack more closely, but care must be used to dry 
out the moisture afterward in a well ventilated place. Each 
day, a half inch or more, as found necessary, is cut off from 
the end of the "wurst," and used for making whey rennet. 

Fresh whey is dipped from the kettle into a well cleaned 
earthen jar, provided with a cover. As this whey may carry 
injurious bacteria with it, it is often safer to pasteurize it 
before use, as described for skim milk starter in (28), but the 
heated whey is finally cooled down to 98-100 degrees for use. 

A common practice at European factories is to separate 
the albumen from the whey before using it. For this pur- 
pose, several gallons of whey are heated in a steam jacketed 
can to 180 degrees or higher, and a sufficient quantity of very 
sour whey, from a supply kept in a keg for this purpose, is 
stirred in so as to cause the precipitation of albumen. The 
material is then left to stand quiet for several hours, when 
the albumen will gather and float at the top and the clear, 
greenish yellow liquid below can be drawn out through a 
faucet. The value of this process probably lies in the pas- 
teurization which the whey receives by the heating rather 
than by the removal of albumen. 

About Yi gallon to 1 gallon of whey at 98-100 degrees, 
prepared by either of the methods described above, is placed 
in the earthen jar. The cut piece of wurst is added, and the 
mixture is set in a warm place, usually near or over the boiler, 
with occasional stirring, at about 98 F., for about 18 hours. 
The stomach infects the liquid with the necessary acid 
forming bacteria, and the whey rennet will test .60 to 1.0 
or 1 M% acid, when ready for use. 

For 2500 lbs of milk in one kettle, 1 pint to 4 quarts of 
whey rennet may be prepared, with the same amount of 



Calf Stomachs, Rennet Extracts. 43 

stomach, according as more or less acid or starter is re- 
quired for the milk. 

When ready for use, the liquid is poured through a piece 
of cloth to remove the pieces of stomach, before adding to 
the kettle. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



THE COMPOSITION OF MILK, WHEY AND CURD. 

(62) Percentage Composition of Milk. Since milk 
was by nature intended for the nourishment of the calf, one 
might expect to find that it contains all the food elements 
necessary for the building up of the young animal's body. 
An analysis reveals the presence of water, which is absolutely 
necessary for the maintenance of life; ash is needed for the 
bones; nitrogenous material in the form of casein and albu- 
men, etc., nourishes the muscles, hair, hoofs and horns; and 
carbonaceous matter in the form of sugar and fat maintains 
the heat of the body. Vitamines stimulate growth. 

The milk given by a fresh cow during the first few days 
after calving is not fit for cheesemaking, as it will not curdle 
well with rennet, but it is needed by the calf, and is called 
colostrum. It contains a large proportion of albumen, and 
such milk will curdle on boiling. 

The composition of a cow's milk, as well as the quantity 
produced, depends upon the individuality and breed of the 
cow, and upon the period of lactation, the milk becoming 
somewhat richer as the calf becomes older. Conditions as to 
health, feed, shelter, age, etc., are also of importance. 



Water 

Fat .... 


Average. 
87.4 per ct. 
3.7 
2.5 


Minimum. 
82.0 per ct. 
2.3 
1.9 
.6 
3.5 
.6 
1.029 


Maxi 

90.0 

7.8 

3.8 

.8 

6.0 

.9 

1.036 


mum. 
per ct 




.7 


'* 


Milk sugar 

Ash 

Specific gravity (60° F.) 


5.0 

.7 
1.032 


« 



(63) Constitution of Milk. In milk, the milk sugar, 
albumen, and about half of the ash are dissolved in the water 
present. Milk sugar is white and crystalline, but not so 
sweet as cane sugar. It is used in medicine, in foods for 
infants and invalids, primost, etc. The fat is not dissolved 
in the water, but is distributed all through the milk in the 



The Composition of Milk, Whey and Curd. 



45 



form of very small drops, called fat globules, which can be 
seen readily under the microscope. 








f Qv * t iKj 



&«^' : i£^^Ste 



oP 



Aft i ^^ '. . 



'**: <t 



Fig. 16 — The fat globules as seen through a microscope. The portion in the 
circle is more highly magnified. The globules vary from 1-2000 to 1-40,000 of an 
inch in diameter, and as many as 150,000,000 globules are present in one drop of 
milk. 

(64) Casein. The casein is the part of the milk that is 
curdled by rennet or weak acids. It is classed as a protein. 

The casein in milk is partly but not fully dissolved in the 
water present, but is distributed in very much smaller 
particles than the fat globules, so that the casein particles 
can not be seen under the ordinary microscope, neither do 
they settle to the bottom on standing, or rise to the top like 
fat globules. Yet it is certain that casein is not fully dis- 
solved in milk, for if milk be filtered through a porcelain 
filter it will leave a gelatinous mass on the filter, which is 
the casein; or, if skim milk be revolved for a long time in a 
separator bowl, a layer of casein will be deposited on the 
walls of the bowl. 

Casein in milk is like egg-white, glue, and blood, in that 
all four of these substances, while fluid at first, may be 
thickened to a jelly or clot. Thus egg white hardens on 
heating, gelatine or glue is fluid when hot, but hardens on 
cooling, while blood thickens or clots upon exposure to the 
air, and casein may be thickened, coagulated, or curdled by 
acids or by rennet. 



46 



Cheese Making. 



(65) Albumen. The casein does not constitute alPof 
the protein of milk. If slightly acid whey be heated to about 
180 degrees F. another precipitate will be thrown down. 
This is the albumen. It is in solution like the white of an 
egg until the heat precipitates it. Albumen is not incor- 
porated in Cheddar cheese in the ordinary method of manu- 
facture, and apparently cannot be so incorporated without 
producing sour cheese. 

In addition to the casein and albumen, small amounts of 
other nitrogenous components are always present in milk, 
but our knowledge of these substances is as yet incomplete. 

(66) Distribution in Curd and Whey. When milk 
is mixed with rennet in the cheese vat, the casein thickens, 
and the thick curd surrounds and holds the fat globules. 
After cutting or breaking into small pieces, the curd gives 
up about 95% of the moisture present, which goes to form 
whey, carrying with it the same proportion of the water 
soluble materials, milk sugar, albumen, etc. 

The distribution of milk constituents between curd and 
whey is about as shown in the diagram, for American cheese. 



MILK 



Water 
87.4% 



Total 
Solids 
12.6% 



Solids 
not 
Fat 

8.9% 

Fat 
3.7% 



Milk sugar 
5% 

Albumen 

.7% ' 



Ash, .7% 

Casein 

2.5% 



WHEY 

95% of the water, dissolved 
milk sugar, albumen, etc. 
5% of the casein 
10% or less of the fat. 
About half oi the ash. 



CHEESE 

90-95% of the fat. , 

95% of the casein. 

About half of the ash. 

About 5% of the water, dis- 
solved milk-sugar, and 
albumen. 



(67) Composition of Whey and of Curd. The 

average composition of whey and of curd from the whole 
milk American cheese vat may be represented about as 
follows : 

Whey American Cheese 

Fat. percent 35% 34 

Casein 10 23 

Albumen 75 

Water 93.00 37 

Milk sugar 5.00 \ c 

Ash .80 J b 

100% 100 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE. 

(68) Importance of Having Standards. The cheese- 
maker is interested in the composition of cheese (1) with 
reference to the legal standards to which his products mtost 
conform, (2) as to the relation between composition and 
the flavor, texture, etc., which are factors in determining 
market quality, selling price, and profits, and (3) a knowl- 
edge of the variations in composition of cheese made from 
milks of different richness, which is of importance in selecting 
a fair method of paying for such milks. 

(69) Fat Standards. Under the laws of many states, 
whole milk cheese must contain at least 50% fat in the dry 
matter. Thus, in Wisconsin, a cheese containing 40% mois- 
ture and 60 % solids, must contain over 30 % fat. Using whole 
milk, and normal methods of manufacture, there is no 
danger of any factory's product running below this fat 
standard, and the average fat content of American cheese 
in Wisconsin is between 30 and 35% fat. Whole milk cheese 
from either Holstein or Jersey milk sell equally well, and at 
the same price. 

In Wisconsin the legal limit of fat in dry matter for Swiss 
cheese is 47 percent, being lower than for American cheese, 
because of the greater loss of fat in Swiss cheese whey, which 
may be .50 to .9%. 

(70) Moisture Standards. The Canadian cheese sup- 
plied in enormous quantities to the English market contains 
about 34 to 36% of moisture, and shows a remarkably high 
quality and uniformity, because of the careful methods of 
manufacture used. 

At the Wisconsin Experiment Station in 1916, 567 
samples of American cheese collected from dealers in all parts 
of the state were tested for moisture, and on comparing the 
moisture tests with the dealers' judgment as to the quality 
of each sample, it was found that 40% before July 1st, and 



48 Cheese Making. 

39% after July 1st, is the limit for good, salable cheese 
suitable for the principal markets where Wisconsin cheese 
are sold. The Wisconsin legislature passed a law setting 
the limit at 40% for American cheese in this state. The 
great value of the Wisconsin law, efficiently enforced, has 
been shown clearly, effecting an improvement in about % 
of the output, according to an estimate. The New York 
legislature passed a somewhat similar law. 

Wisconsin cheese manufactured for the southern markets 
contain about 37 to 39% moisture, and are somewhat quicker 
curing than the Canadian product, while yet firm enough to 
stand the warm climate where they are marketed. Cheese 
containing over 40% moisture made in Wisconsin previous 
to the passage of the law mentioned, were not able to stand 
up in the warm southern climates, and caused dealers a great 
deal of trouble and loss. They are fit only for immediate 
sale and consumption in the cooler, northern states. 

(71) The consumption of cheese in the United States is in- 
creasing only about % as fast as the population increases 
and this notable falling off in the use of cheese is believed to 
be due in large measure to the modern tendency to manu- 
facture soft, high moisture cheese, which are quick curing and 
are sold and eaten before they have developed a really at- 
tractive flavor. The passage of a moisture limit law is one 
step in the correction of this condition. 

(72) Composition, Yield, and Payments. Studies 
at the New York (Geneva) Experiment Station over a period 
of years led to the view that in comparing the yield of cheese 
from high and low testing milk, mixed in the same vat, a 
uniform moisture content (as 37%) may be assumed, as the 
basis of the comparison. The New York view carries with 
it, necessarily, the assumption that casein carries relatively 
less moisture with it into cheese from low testing milk, than 
from high testing milk. These views are being made the 
subject of study at present by the author, using Jersey and 
Holstein milk in comparison, and it is possible that a fixed 
casein-moisture ratio and a variable moisture content may 
be found by experiment to be the correct basis for comparison 
and payments at whole milk cheese factories. 



CHAPTER X. 

CHEESE TESTS FOR MOISTURE AND FAT. 

(73) Cheese Testing by Makers. In the making of 
cheese the control of the moisture content of the cheese is 
of great importance. Fresh meat, fruit, vegetables, milk, or 
wet bread may spoil quickly, while the same materials if 
dried will keep well for a long time. Similarly, cheese con- 
taining too much moisture is likely to spoil before it is eaten, 
and cause loss to the owner or maker. 

Every cheesemaker should learn how to test cheese for 
moisture so as to be sure his daily product is within the legal 
limit. 

The testing of cheese samples for fat by the Babcock test 
can now be done as quickly as cream testing. 

(74) Cheese Moisture Testing Equipment. The 
equipment consists of a No. 1710 torsion scales or similar 




Fig. 17. — The moisture test scales may be protected from dirt and dampness 
as well as insects, by enclosing in a small box with glass door, attached to the wall 
at suitable height. 



50 



Cheese Making. 



scales sensitive to .01 or .02 gram, a 10 gram weight, cheese 
sample bottles, trier, moisture test dishes either 3 or 2 inches 
in diameter, and a high pressure steam oven or equivalent 
device for drying the samples. The rapid methods by which 
butter samples may be dried directly over a flame in a few 
minutes are not applicable to cheese. Cheese samples can 
be dried over a kerosene lamp chimney as rapidly as in a 
steam oven. See Wis. circular 81. 

(75A) Sampling and Weighing Cheese for Moisture 
Test. One or two trier plugs are taken, so as to be repre- 
sentative of the whole cheese, keeping well away from old 
trier holes, the cheese rind, a cut surface, or a damaged spot. 
Return the outer end (% inch) of the trier plug to close the 
trier hole, put the rest of the plug quickly into the cheese 
sample bottle and insert stopper. Do not wrap plugs in 
paper or cloth, or leave exposed to the air. See (254). 

Instead of using one end of a plug in a moisture sample 
dish, it is better to split the entire plug lengthwise with a 
knife, as the long narrow strip is a better sample of the whole 
cheese. 

A 10 gram sample should be well dried in 4 hours or 
more at 30 lbs. or higher steam pressure. A 5 gram sample 
should give the same percentage of moisture, but will dry 




Fig. 18. — Steam ovens can be obtained of large or small size, holding 1 to 30 
dishes, suitable for large warehouses or small factories. 



Cheese Tests for Moisture and Fat. 51 

in an hour less of time, and foams less in drying. To pre- 
vent all possibility of foaming or bubbling over, it is better 
to leave the steam oven door partly open during the first 
hour. It is advisable, for beginners at least, to make always 
two tests in two moisture dishes on the same cheese. One 
of these may be made with 10 grams and one with 5 grams 
if preferred, for comparison. 

(75B) Weighing Cheese Samples For Moisture 
Test. From the set of moisture test dishes, select one of 
average weight and mark it plainly "B" and keep it care- 
fully. 

First, to balance the scales, put the "B" dish on the 
middle of the right pan, set the three small sliding weights 
each on the zero mark of its beam. Then move the fourth, 
and largest sliding weight until the pointer at the top swings 
the same distance on each side of the middle mark, showing 
that the scales are balanced. The leveling screws at the 
ends may also be used to balance the scales. Put away the 
"B" dish. Leave the fourth weight exactly where it is, 
until through work. 

Second, put any empty, clean, numbered dish on the 
middle of the right scale pan, and balance the scales exactly 
by moving the top, smallest sliding weight to the right or 
left. If too light, put a tack or two in the pan; if too heavy, 
trim the edge of the pan with shears, When balanced ex- 
actly, record the dish number, and the tare weight in the 
first column below. The tare might be right 3.2, or left 4.6. 

First Test Second Test 

Dish number 

Tare weight empty 

Weight of sample 

Per cent of moisture 

Third, add a 10 gram weight to the left pan. Split a 
trier plug of your cheese into four quarters with a knife, 
lengthwise. Put one quarter and part of another into the 
dish until the scales are again balanced exactly. (Do not 
expose the unweighed cheese to the air very long, as it may 
dry out.) 



52 



Cheese Making. 



Fourth, place the dish, with cover, and weighed sample 
in the steam oven. Record the steam pressure in lbs., and 
time of day when put in oven. 

Fifth, with the scales empty, begin again at (2). Go 
through the directions a second time with a second dish, 
recording the figures in the second column. This gives you 
two tests on the same cheese. 

Sixth, come back after about half a day, when the cheese 
will be dry, and finish the test. Balance the scales as in (1) 
using the "B" dish at the right as at first. 

Put the first dish on the right pan, set the top slide at 
tare weight recorded for this dish. Put a 10 gram weight 




Fig. 18A. — Students Using Cheese Moisture Test. 

on the left scale pan, and balance the scales exactly by mov- 
ing the second and third sliding weights to the right. Read 
the position of these 2 weights, and record the sum as the 
per cent of moisture in the sample. 

Remove the first sample dish from the scales, and put on 
the second, adjust the tare, balance and read in the same way. 

Duplicate tests commonly agree within y± of a percent. 

The method of weighing samples can be varied in several 
ways. Thus the dishes may be brought to a standard 
weight, as 17 grams, by adding fine, dry, quartz sand in- 



Cheese Tests for Moisture and Fat. 53 

stead of using the upper tare beam. If a set of weights is 
at hand, instead of only a 10 gram weight, each dish may 
be weighed exactly, and the weight recorded. 

Instead of a No. 1710 balance with moisture scale beams 
reading up to 50%, it is possible to use a No. 1700 balance, 
with beams reading up to 30%, by using also a 2 gram 
weight which is placed opposite the dried sample dish, and 
counts for 20% moisture. 

(76) Testing Cheese for Fat by the Babcock Test. 
The Babcock test for determining the fat content of milk 
and its products was invented by Dr. S. M. Babcock of the 
Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, and described 
in Bulletin No. 24, July, 1890; it is now not only in general 
use in this country, but in different countries of Europe, in 
India, New Zealand and Australia. It has literally "gone 
around the world."* 

The older methods of dissolving cheese samples for the 
Babcock test consumed a great deal of time, but the follow- 
ing method devised by the author in 1909, and used without 
accident since that date, can be completed almost as quickly 
as an ordinary cream test. 

The sample of cheese, amounting to from 8 to 10 or 12 
grams is placed in the 30% Babcock test cream bottle, and 
weighed with the same scales used in the moisture test, or 
with the usual cream test scales. 

If the bottles used for this purpose are permanently 
numbered by etching on the side, and are weighed clean and 
dry, the list of weights can be used thereafter, whenever the 
bottles are clean, dry, and filled with a cheese sample, mak- 
ing it necessary to weigh only the bottle with the sample, 
but not the empty bottle again. 

The sample is dissolved rapidly in the following manner: 
Fill the acid measure to the mark with sulphuric acid as 
usual. From a dish of boiling water, by means of a wide 
tipped pipette, place 10 cc of the very hot water in the bottle 
with the cheese. At times it is necessary also to dip the 
bottle into the boiling water for a few seconds, as explained 
below, to aid in securing a sufficiently high final temperature. 



*The Babcock Test is described in detail in "Testing Milk and Its Products," 
by Professors Farrington and Woll (23rd edition, 1918; Mendota Book Co., Madi- 
son, Wis., publishers). Full directions for making tests of milk and other dairy 
products, and discussions of all phases of the subject will be found in the book. 



54 Cheese Making. 

Immediately after adding the hot water, and without any 
delay whatever, begin adding the acid from the measure in 
small portions, rapidly, about 1 cc at a time, shaking the 
bottle once quickly after each addition, to mix the acid and 
water. When about half of the acid has been added in this 
way in small portions, the remaining half may be added in 
larger portions, or all at once. 

As soon as the acid is all in, the bottle is shaken contin- 
uously, and the heat developed by mixing the acid with the 
hot water is sufficient to soften the cheese quickly, melt it 
to a liquid, and dissolve all portions of it except the fat. 

If the first bottle thus handled proves to be a little slow, 
in dissolving the sample, the next bottle may be heated a 
flew seconds by dipping in the boiling water, before adding 
the 10 cc of water to the cheese. 

While it may seem dangerous to suggest the addition of 
strong sulphuric acid to hot water, yet by adding small por- 
tions and mixing, as directed, the boiling point of the dilute 
acid in the bottle is always higher than the temperature 
attained, and in this way the work is done quickly without 
loss of material. 

As in all Babcock tests, the neck of the bottle should be 
turned toward the wall while adding acid to avoid a possible 
accident from boiling over, but this seldom if every occurs. 
A burnt test is never obtained. 

The bottle is whirled and filled with hot water for reading 
like any cream test, and red reader is used, or fat saturated 
alcohol, to permit accurate reading. Dividing the bottle 
reading by the weight of the cheese sample, and multiplying 
by 18 gives the correct fat test of the cheese. Duplicate tests 
agree remarkably well if set in water at 140°F., for five 
minutes before reading. 

(77) Fat in Dry Matter. To calculate the percentage 
of fat in the dry matter, subtract the percentage of moisture 
from 100, and divide the percentage of fat by the remainder, 
which is the percentage of dry matter in the cheese. The 
quotient is the percentage of fat in the dry matter, and 
should be higher than 50% for all whole milk cheese, in 
Wisconsin, excepting Swiss for which the legal standard 
is 47%. 



CHAPTER XI. 

CHEESE JUDGING AND SCORING. 

(78) General Methods and Score Cards. Cheese are 
intended to please the consumer, as to flavor, texture and 
general appearance or make up. 

The texture of cheese is readily seen on cutting. A 
spongy cheese, full of holes, or one that is short and crumbly 
in texture so that it breaks readily and can not be cut neatly 
into regular sized portions, is not attractive to the consumer 
or housewife, and every such cheese put on the market serves 
to discourage consumers from buying again soon. 

The flavor of cheese should be attractive, not sour or too 
acid, nor unclean, nor yet too mild and tasteless due to being 
sold too young. In the writer's opinion the modern tendency 
to sell cheese to consumers as young as possible (in order to 
get an early profit), is responsible, more than anything else, 
for the fact that cheese consumption in this country is 
increasing only one-third as fast as the population increases. 
If every cheese was made so as to keep in good condition for 
four to six months and none marketed earlier, the demand 
for cheese would be greatly increased. 

The appearance of cheese, due to careful workmanship, 
has much to do with its attractiveness, as with any other 
line of merchandise. 

Every consumer is a good judge as to whether a cheese 
pleases him or not. Cheese buyers, retail dealers, and many 
housewives have clearly in mind the qualities which make 
cheese attractive or the opposite. Every cheesemaker 
should learn to judge his own products. 

Cheese scoring consists, in addition to judging, of setting 
a numerical value on 'the qualities which any given cheese 
possesses, thus affording an easy method of comparing and 
recording the excellence or poor qualities of different cheese. 
As a general rule, cheese scoring 90 to 92 are good cheese 
marketable at the ruling price, according to the supply and 



56 Cheese Making. 

demand. Cheese scoring 95 or above are better than the 
average market product, and are the kind that win prizes 
and diplomas in contests, fairs, etc. Cheese scoring less than 
90 are more or less defective in some respect, and are likely 
to be sold at a somewhat reduced price, unless the demand 
is unusually large and the buyers inclined to overlook defects. 

The score card commonly used for American cheese is as 
follows: 

Flavor 45, texture 30, color 15, make up 10, total 100. 

For brick and Limburger, the following card is used: 

Flavor 40, texture 40, color 10, salt 5, package 5. 

For Swiss cheese, the Wisconsin score card is: 

Flavor 35, holes 30, texture 20, salt 10, package 5. 

The Canadian score card for Cheddar cheese is: 

Flavor 40, body and texture 30, color 15, finish and box- 
ing 15. 

The English scale of points is: 

Flavor 35, quality 25, texture 15, color 15, make 10. 

(79) Steps for the Beginner in Judging American 
Cheese. Age and Temperature. See that the cheese is in 
fit condition for scoring as to temperature, age, etc. Thus 
cheese in cold storage at temperatures near freezing, or 
exposed for some time to very low winter temperatures or 
very warm summer heat, can be better judged if placed for 
24 hours in a room of moderate temperature, as at about 60 
to 70 degrees F., for the reason that very cold cheese are 
harder and very warm cheese are much softer than ordinary, 
and are difficult to compare under extremes of temperature. 
Very young cheese, only a few days old, are curdy and 
uneven in texture, and it is difficult to predict with certainty 
what their quality will be when fully cured. Especially with 
cheese which may possibly be too soft from excessive mois- 
ture, buyers have been mistaken at times in their judgment, 
and have sometimes put cheese into storage expecting them 
to come out several months later in good condition, but have 
found them of inferior quality after curing. 

While a rough judgment may generally be passed on 
green cheese, yet for accurate scoring, they should be fully 
cured and American cheese should be at least one month 
old. 



Cheese Judging and Scoring. 57 

(80) Taking a Trier Sample. Drawing a trier plug 
should be done so as to get a representative sample of the 
cheese, not going too close to an old trier hole, a spoiled, 
moldy, or soft place in the cheese, a cut surface, or the rind. 
At times, as where several judges are at work, samples can 
easily be taken from different parts of the same cheese, 




Fig. 19. — The cheese trier is made of steel, and often nickel-plated. Its use is 
illustrated in (254). 

which is a distinct advantage since cases have been known 
where a Long Horn cheese, for example, bored at one end 
scored 5 points or more above a sample taken from the other 
end, due to mixing of curd or other causes. 

(81) A Full Trier. A perfectly close, compact cheese 
will draw a solid or ''candle" plug, while a cheese so open or 
loose as to draw only a half plug should be scored down 
on this account. 

(82) An Open Cheese. The plug may be of full length, 
and yet show many small round holes, due to gas forming 
bacteria from unclean milk, or it may show many mechanical 
holes, large or small but irregular in shape, due to imperfect 
closing of the cheese in the press, or partly rounded holes 
indicating the presence of gas as well as mechanical faults. 
Mechanical holes may be seen filled with butter fat, due to 
pressing a greasy curd without first rinsing it. Insufficient 
pressure makes loose texture. 

(83) Is the Plug Elastic and of Good Color? A trier 
plug taken from a well made cheese can be bent, sometimes 
into a half circle, without breaking. If the cheese breaks 
suddenly, and will not bend, showing it to be brittle and not 
elastic, this is due to too much acid developed while making 
the cheese, and the high acid quality is likely to be shown 
also by a dead white, or chalky white, or faded color, as well 



58 Cheese Making. 

as a strong acid, or sour taste. Besides bending well, a plug 
from a good cheese breaks gradually, showing a torn surface 
with a meaty or fibrous texture. The color should be slightly 
translucent, like amber, regardless of whether cheese color 
was used or not. 

(84) Working and Warming the Cheese in the 
Hand. To judge how a cheese will please the eater, it is not 
necessary to chew and swallow it, and the cheese judge's 
sense of taste would soon weary and fail, if many samples 
were eaten. Instead of chewing, a portion of the plug per- 
haps an inch long is kneaded between the thumb and fingers 
for a few minutes, noting whether (1) it is firm enough, or 
weak and soft, or too hard, corky or woody, and if 

(2) it works down to an even waxy mass or dough, or 
leaves some lumps which will not work down smooth, and if 

(3) it is pasty, wet, sticking to the fingers, indicating a 
high moisture content, or is waxy, or is too dry, or is mealy. 

(85) Flavor Detected by Odor Or Taste. Finally, the 
lump of warmed and kneaded curd is lifted to the nose, and 
the odor noted, also at times a small portion may be chewed 
and then rejected from the mouth, and the mouth rinsed 
after each trial or after a few trials. A bitter flavor usually 

-can not be detected by the nose, but must be tasted; while 
almost any other defect in flavor can be observed as well by 
smelling as by tasting. 

Faults in flavor due to too much acid, or due to unclean 
milk are readily detected. Too much salt or lack of it is 
occasionally noticed. Injury due to overheating cheese in the 
curing room or shipment may occur. 

(86) Examination for Careful Make-Up. It is the 
maker's fault, when cheese show a wrinkled bandage, a 
checked or poorly closed rind, are crooked, that is higher on 
one side than on the other, or show a high edge due to loose 
followers, a dirty or torn bandage, etc., as these are entirely 
under his control. 

(87) Defects in American Cheese.* A useful exer- 
cise for students in cheesemaking is to copy the following list 
of faults in the note book, inserting after each, one or more 
methods by which the fault can be remedied or prevented. 



*See M. Michels in Wis. bulletin 182; also Publow, Cornell bulletin 257. 



Cheese Judging and Scoring. 



59 




Fig. 19A. — Defective Workmanship Produces Cheese of Poor Appearance. 



Defects in Flavor. 



A. Acid Flavors. Indicated by a sour smell and taste. 

Cause. (1) Ripening the milk too much before setting. 

(2) Use of too much starter. 

(3) Use of sharp and overripe starter. 

(4) Insufficient cook at the time of drawing the whey. 

B. Lacking Flavor. Lacking in taste and smell. 

Cause. (1) Setting the milk underripe. 

(2) Cooking a slow-working curd up too rapidly. 

(3) Too much washing of the curd when placed on 

the racks or after milling. 

C. Fermented Fruit Flavors. Indicated by a fermented 

whey or fermented fruit smell and somewhat 
sickening to the taste. 
Cause. (1) Unclean cans in which milk - is delivered. 

(2) Unclean factory conditions, whey tanks, leaky 

vats, etc. 

(3) Added with the starter. 

D. Bitter Flavors. Indicated by a bitter taste. 

Cause. (1) Aged milk. 

(2) May develop in the starter. 

(3) By bacteria brushed from the cow's udder while 

milking. 

(4) Lack of salt. 



60 Cheese Making. 

E. Weedy or Food Flavors. 

Cause. (1) Cows feeding on weeds. 

(2) Feeding strong-scented feed just before or while 

milking. 

(3) Exposing milk in an atmosphere laden with food 

flavors. 

F. Stable Flavors. Bad taste and cow-stable smell. 

Cause. (1) Uncleanliness in milking. 

(2) Keeping the milk or cream in or near a dirty cow- 
stable. 

G. Unclean or Off Flavors. Indicated by an unclean smell 

or taste. 
Cause. (1) Often a combination of defects, as 

(2) Unclean cans and other utensils coming in con- 

tact with the milk. 

(3) Unclean milking. 

(4) Exposing" the milk to impure air. 

(5) Using impure water in setting the milk or in 

rinsing the curd. 

(6) Using a starter of unclean flavor. 

(7) These terms are often used when the judges fail 

to find a suitable description. 

II. Defects in Texture. 

A. Dry or Corky Textures. Appear dry and hard and do 

not mould waxy. 
Cause. (1) Lack of butter fat, due to skimming. 

(2) Cooking Loo high or too long, losing moisture. 

(3) Setting at too high temperature, losing fat. 

(4) Handling curds roughly, losing fat. 

(5) Cutting curds too fine. 

B. Acid Textures. Appear short and mealy, look faded in 

color and sour to taste. 
Cause. (1) Ripening the milk too much before setting. 

(2) The use of too much starter. 

(3) The development of too much acid before curd 

is properly firmed. 

(4) Developing too much acid in the whey. 

(5) Insufficient stirring when out of the whey. 



Cheese Judging and Scoring. 61 

C. Weak Textures. May be close boring, yet soggy. This 

fault usually appears with cold weather and 
with increased richness of the milk. 
Cause. (1) Insufficient cook. 

(2) Heating the curd too rapidly. 

(3) Insufficient drainage. 

(4) Cutting the curd too coarsely. 

(5) Not enough salt. 

(6) Matting the curd down too thin before milling. 

D. Open Textures. Cheese very soft and full of holes. 

Cause. (1) Insufficient development of acid, before 
salting. 

(2) Insufficient pressure while in press. 

(3) Too high a temperature of curing room. 

E. Gassy Textures. Indicated by spongy texture and full 

of small openings throughout the cheese. 
Cause. (1) Produced by bacteria brushed into the milk 
with dirt from cow's udder while milking. 

(2) Use of unclean cans, or a dirty whey tank. 

(3) Gassy starters. 

F. Greasy Textures. Indicated by free butter fat between 

particles of curd which are not cemented to- 
gether. 
Cause. (1) Very rich milk, two days old. 

(2) Setting the milk at too high a temperature. 

(3) Piling and maturing the curd too much at high 

temperatures, and not rinsing. 

III. Defects in Color. 

A. Dead or Faded in Color. The cause and remedy the 

same as in acid texture. 

B. Mottled in Color. Uneven color in the cheese, most 

noticeable in the case of colored cheese. 
Cause. (1) Mixing curds of different colors. 

(2) Uneven development of acid on curd. 

(3) Allowing the curd to mat into large lumps while 

heating. 

(4) Adding a curdy starter without straining. 

(5) Adding starter dfter the milk has been colored. 

(6) Making rennet tests before adding color. 



62 Cheese Making. 

IV. Defects in Make-up or Finish. 

A. High Edge. 

Cause. (1) Improperly fitting followers. 

(2) Applying pressure too quickly. 

(3) Dressing cheese before sufficient pressure has 

been applied. 

B. Crooked Cheese. 

Cause. (1) Improperly fitting followers. 

(2) Hoops not filled evenly. 

(3) Applying pressure too quickly. 

(4) Head block crooked. 

C. Bandage. Wrinkled, torn, dirty, too long or short at one 

end, loose from cheese. 
Cause. (1) Carelessness in dressing, boxing, etc. 

D. Checked Rinds. 

Cause. (1) Greasy curds. 

(2) Pressing when too cold. 

(3) The use of hard and impervious press cloths. 

(4) Lack of pressure while in the press. 

(5) Too rapid drying when first taken from the press. 

(6) Removing press cloths too long before paraffin- 

ing. 
(88) A First Class American Cheese should have — 
Flavor, fine and nutty, with pleasing acid taste. 
Texture, smooth, silky and close boring. 
Color, even and slightly translucent. 
Finish, a smooth rind covered with a closely fitting band- 
age and a square edge. 



CHAPTER XII. 

PLANNING FACTORIES, LARGE OR SMALL. 

(89) General Suggestions. Before starting to build, 
remember (1) that at least 3,000 lbs. of milk daily should be 
obtained, with immediate prospects for more to secure 
economy in manufacture, (2) in most cases a large number 
of farmers should own shares in the factory building in order 
to retain their support and patronage. Cheesemakers own- 
ing factories are usually anxious to sell, sooner or later. 

A new factory should be located centrally among the 
patrons, on a well built road, where good drainage is availa- 
ble, a good water supply can be had and if convenient on 
sloping land, so that milk, whey, etc., can run by gravity 
instead of being pumped. 

To dispose of factory wastes, wash water, etc., these may 
be run into a stream carrying at least 30 times more water 
than the volume of the factory sewage, or through a septic 
tank into a filter bed (see Wisconsin bul. 245), or through a 
grease trap into a dry well in sandy soil. In case none of 
these are available, wash water and even whey may be 
collected in a tank, pumped into a tank wagon and sprinkled 
on the country roads, where it quickly dries up and causes 
no nuisance. Patrons should be required to haul away the 
whey daily, even if they dump part of it along the road. A 
surface ditch used to carry off whey alone is sure to have a 
foul odor, before hot weather is over. 

All newly built factories should be provided with steam 
boilers, affording greater convenience and saving labor and 
making it possible to pasteurize whey before feeding it to 
live stock, as required by law in several states. 

The plan should usually show the curing room on the 
north or coolest side, and if possible the intake on the east 
side, while the building for American cheese is commonly 
above ground but for Swiss, Limburger. brick or other 



64 Cheese Making. 

cheese requiring long curing in a moist room of even tempera- 
ture, the curing room usually extends underground, or into 
the side of a hill. Maker's living rooms are usually built 
above. 

The whey should be skimmed, except at Limburger 
factories. 

The necessary dimensions of a factory are readily figured 
when the number of vats and other equipment, and the 
amount of milk to be handled is known. The cheese busi- 
ness is now well established, and new factories should be 
built amply large, and of permanent construction. 

The whey tank outlet should be in sight of the intake 
and high enough to run whey by gravity into cans on the 
patron's wagon. Concrete whey tanks do not last long. 
The wooden whey tank may be set on wooden or concrete 
posts out of doors, or over the coal bin, or even in the upper 
story of the building, but there is danger in this case of whey 
leaking down over the make vats, curing room, or living 
rooms and causing damage and insanitary conditions. A 
concrete block, 6 by 10 feet, with a slope toward the middle, 
and a bell drain and tile outlet should be placed under the 
whey outlet at every factory, so as to catch and remove all 
spilled whey, buttermilk, washings, etc., and thus entirely 
prevent the foul smelling mudhole which has been the worst 
nuisance at factories in the past. 

Concrete floors, smooth walls and ceiling which can be 
washed or painted, thick walls especially around the curing 
room, plenty of light and ventilation and steam heat if pos- 
sible are important details. The general aim should be to 
construct and arrange building and equipment so as to give 
the factory operator every facility for cleanliness and no 
excuse for lack of it. The factory in Wisconsin must be 
licensed, as well as the cheesemaker, and the requirements 
and suggestions for licensed factories as to construction and 
arrangements should be obtained before building from the 
Dairy and Food Commissioner, State Capitol, Madison, Wis. 

Plans for organizing farmers and incorporating under 
state laws for the purpose of building and operating factories, 
which can be obtained from the Secretary of State, Madison, 
Wis., are discussed in Wis. Expt. Station bulletin 244. 



Planning Factories, Large or Small. 65 

Bulletins on factory planning and organization can be 
obtained from agricultural colleges in most of the dairy 
states. 

(90) Large Factories Compared with Small Ones. 

The large factory has numerous advantages, so that it is pre- 
ferable to have one large factory in a community rather than 
several small ones. In some localities, five factories could be 
replaced with one or two with increased profit to the patrons, 
while the makers thus released could find better paid em- 
ployment elsewhere. The advantages of a large factory 
over small ones include (1) the ability to secure and hold the 
most skillful and experienced makers, who are able to carry 
responsibility and earn the best wages, (2) the purchase of 
up-to-date equipment and improvements of all sorts that 
may be needed, (3) in the purchase of supplies in large 
quantities, thus securing the most favorable prices and terms 
of payment, (4) in being able to afford large, roomy, well 
built, lighted and heated buildings and conveniences for the 
manufacture and storage of cheese and for storing supplies, 
etc., (5) in the sale of large quantities of the product, thus 
attracting the attention of buyers in the largest markets, 
filling large orders, with economy in handling and shipping 
and at good prices, (6) better economy in the employment of 
helpers and keeping them busy. (7) By means of a large 
factory, the community is united in its interest in the success 
of a single enterprise, instead of being divided against itself, 
as at many small neighboring factories. Where there are 
more than two factories within five miles of each other, the 
proposition of uniting two or more of them should receive 
consideration. The cost of cheesemaking may be over 3 
cents a pound at small factories but only about 2\ at 
large ones. 

(91) Increasing the Milk Supply. The aim should 
be kept in mind to increase milk supplies from the near-by 
farms to the point where 10,000 pounds or more of milk can 
be obtained with short hauls. 

The difficulty of increasing the number of cows kept per 
farm, has arisen mainly from the scarcity of help, especially 
milkers, but the increasing use of milking machines by care- 
ful operators has done much toward overcoming this objec- 



66 Cheese Making. 

tion to keeping more cows. With continued improvement 
in the machines on the market, and in the farm methods of 
handling them, further increase in size of dairy herds on 
small and medium sized farms becomes easier. 

A yet more important matter for the average dairy farmer 
is the improvement of his herd whether the number of cows 
be increased or not. Cow Testing associations of which 
there are about 112 in Wisconsin and about 500 in the 
United States are a great help in this work. One competent 
man or woman, engaged by an association of about 25 farmers 



Fig. 19B. — Association Cow Tester at Work. 

to spend one day per month at each farm, weigh and test 
the milk, and perhaps also weigh the feed used, enables the 
farmers to pick out with certainty the unprofitable cows to 
be disposed of, and to know precisely what each cow is doing 
to make the herd profitable. The best cows are bred to 
superior sires, preferably purebred and tested sires, and the 
calves are kept to replace the poorest cows in the herd. By 
proper attention to cow testing, cow selection, breeding and 
feeding, the milk produced by many herds has been more 
than doubled and the profits increased in yet larger proportion. 
A good milk cow is one which has the ability to consume 
a large amount of feed, and transform it into milk. A less 



Planning Factories, Large or Small. 67 

desirable animal might eat the same amount of feed, but 
transform it into body fat, giving little milk. 

Having a good cow, the aim is to feed her all that she can 
consume, without producing any great increase in her weight. 

Geo. C. Humphrey of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station advises that a cow weighing approximately 
1000 lbs. may receive daily 1 pound of grain mixture for 
every three or four pounds of milk produced, in addition 
to either (1) 30 pounds of corn silage and 10 pounds of hay, 
clover or alfalfa preferred, or (2) 30 pounds of roots and 
15 pounds of hay, or (3) 8 pounds of dried beet pulp soaked 
12 to 24 hours before feeding, or (4) 20 pounds of hay with 
one or two pounds of oil meal added to her grain. Cows 
exceeding 1000 pounds in weight should receive relatively 
more hay and silage or roots. An important problem for the 
farmer is to select an economical grain mixture from those 
available in the market, and to grow alfalfa, put up silage, 
etc., on the farm. Valuable suggestions on cow testing, 
breeding, and feeding which the factory man is able to give 
the farmer will be returned to the factory in increased milk 
supply and profits. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

CHEESE FACTORY MANAGEMENT. 

(92) Division of Labor and Responsibility. The 

important items in factory management, after the building is 
erected and equipped include the following: 

(1) Hiring and paying the cheesemaker. 

(2) Buying and paying for supplies. 

(3) Weighing and testing milk. 

(4) Making the cheese of standard quality so as to 
bring the ruling market price. 

(5) Weighing and billing the correct weight of cheese 
to the buyer. 

(6) Receiving the buyer's payment for cheese and 
distributing the money according to the plan adopted, 
figuring payments, statements, etc. 

(7) Auditing the accounts, economizing in all helpful 
ways, etc. 

The method of performing each part of the work should 
be such as will treat all parties fairly, and also satisfy them 
that they are being thus treated, so that they will continue 
to patronize the factory and bring in more business. 

(93) Systems of Factory Management. The Pri- 
vate Factory. In a new dajry region, the coming of a 
cheesemaker who knows how to plan, build, equip and 
operate a factory is a great advantage to the farmers who 
thus are given an outlet for all the milk they can produce. 
The patrons are likely to recognize the maker's experience 
and to leave the entire factory operation to him, from the 
start. In a word, the patrons bring in their milk daily and 
receive a check once a month, while the cheesemaker does 
the rest. Under these conditions, the maker is paid not only 
for making cheese, but also for knowing more about the 
business than the patrons, who are only beginning to learn. 
The maker in this case may do, or neglect to do, several 
things which will serve to confirm the patrons' confidence in 
him. Among these are (1) explaining the cheese business so 



Cheese Factory Management. 69 

far as the patrons are interested and not making a mystery 
out of it, (2) furnishing a statement with the pay check 
which meets the patron's ideas as what a statement should 
show, (3) providing for an audit of accounts, or in other ways 
to retain the patron's good will and confidence. As time 
passes, the patrons learn more and more about factory 
management and come to the point where they wish to pay 
the maker only for the work of making cheese, while the 
figuring of payments and other parts of the work is done by 
one of the patrons, elected for this purpose. Under these 
conditions, the maker cannot expect to earn as much as 
formerly, and often wishes that he no longer owned the fac- 
tory, but was free to change his location. On this account, 
young cheesemakers are not advised to build factories at 
their own expense, but to invest their earnings in other ways, 
such as in approved farm mortgages, etc. 

(94) The Farmers' Factory. At the other extreme 
of the scale is found the factory owned and managed entirely 
by farmers, where the cheesemaker is paid either by the 
month, for his labor only (items 3, 4, 5 above), or paid by 
the pound of cheese at a fixed rate (2^ to 2}4, cents) for 
which he furnishes both labor and supplies (items 2, 3, 4 5, 
above), while the patrons do the rest. (See also section 96.) 
Swiss cheesemakers receive about 13 cents on each dollar 
received from the sale of cheese. 

(95) Other Ways of Operating a Factory. A variety 
of other ways are found among factories. Thus, for example, 
the factory building may be owned by a group of farmers, 
rented to a factory manager, who in some cases pays a rental 
of perhaps $100 a year, and in other cases charges the farmers 
$100 a year or more for his services as manager. The equip- 
ment may be owned by the farmers or may be owned and 
installed by the manager. The cheesemaking labor and sup- 
plies are paid for by the manager, who may also sell the 
cheese, and pay the patrons monthly by check, with or with- 
out a complete statement as to business details. Or, the 
farmers' secretary may receive the money and distribute it. 
Many variations of method are found. 

(96) Cooperative Factory Management in Wiscon- 
sin. As indicated above, there are many ways in which 



70 Cheese Making. 

farmers may cooperate in owning and operating a factory. 
In the past, the term "cooperative" has been used loosely 
to apply to factories which were cooperative only as to 
ownership of the building but which were privately managed. 
In order to promote full cooperation among farmers, and 
secure certain other advantages, a law was passed in Wis- 
consin permitting only incorporated factories, using the pre- 
scribed plan of distributing their funds, to be called "co- 
operative" factories. 

This plan requires that from the gross receipts from sale 
of cheese there shall be deducted and held in the treasury a 
charge, per pound of cheese, sufficient to cover the running 
expenses, and the funds, and dividends required by law. 

In practice, it is found that factory supplies for several 
months are frequently purchased at one time, while other 
items as insurance, taxes, repairs, losses from bad debts, 
etc., occur at irregular intervals, but really apply to the entire 
year's work. Factory stockholders should be paid more than 
patrons, while those who support the factory throughout the 
year and keep it going are in a different class from those who 
leave the factory during the season. To meet these condi- 
tions in such a way as to promote unity and prosperity at 
the factory and secure the utmost loyalty from all patrons 
and employees, the following plan is recommended. 

(97) Cooperative Profits. At such factories, incorpo- 
rated under. the Wisconsin cooperative plan, there is deducted 
from the sales each month a fixed charge as 2 3/2, 3 or more 
cents per pound of cheese sold, which amount is held in the 
treasury and used for the payment of all running expenses, 
leaving a reasonable amount of money to be divided at the 
end of the year as net profits, in the following manner: 

(1) An 8% dividend to holders of the capital stock. 

(2) A reserve fund or sinking fund equal to 10% of the 
net profits. 

(3) An educational fund equal to 5% of the net profits. 
The balance is divided among the patrons and employees 

in the following manner: 

(4) To the stockholders in proportion to the value of the 
milk delivered by them. 



Cheese Factory Management. 71 

(5) To non-stockholders in proportion to Yi the value of 
milk delivered by them. 

(6) A bonus to employees in proportion to wages received. 

For example, if stockholders delivered milk worth $30,000 

and non-stockholders delivered milk worth 4 5,000 

and employees received ' 1 ,200 

Total $36,200 

and if- the balance amounts to $2,085.50, it is found by di- 
viding that a uniform dividend of 5.76% can be paid, as 
follows : 

Stockholders receive 30,000x5.76% (uniform dividend) : $1,728 

Non-stockholders receive 10,000x2.88% (V 2 uniform dividend) 288 

Employees 1200x5.76% (uniform dividend) 69. 12 

Total $2,085.12 

Undivided balance carried forward to next year .38 



Total to be divided $2,085.50 

This plan has the advantage of encouraging employees to 
be economical and careful in their work, and to remain at the 
factory throughout the season, and gives the patrons also 
an inducement not to leave the factory during the season, 
while stockholders receive a fair additional return as interest 
on the money invested, and for their willingness to make the 
investment. The sinking fund provides for future repairs, 
as roofs, painting, machinery, etc., while the educational 
fund provides for meetings, or an instructor, to improve the 
milk supply, etc. 

(98) Figuring and Auditing. At a small country 
factory, where the amount of figuring required is not large, 
it may be done by the secretary. Sometimes "the figuring is 
done by one of the patrons, or a near-by school teacher, or 
other party who is paid 10 or 15 cents per patron per month 
for doing the work. In many cases, the figuring of payments 
is done, free of charge, at the bank where the factory de- 
posits are kept. 

Auditing is done to prevent mistakes. In any case, the 
person who does the figuring should go over it a second time 
to make sure that no errors have, occurred. At some fac- 
tories, the monthly figures are gone over by a second person, 
appointed as auditor, before the checks are sent to the pa- 
trons. 



72 Cheese Making. 

(99) Test Committee. A committee of patrons, fre- 
quently changed, whose duty it is to be present when the 
maker tests milk samples for fat, should be asked for, when- 
ever there is any doubt of the correctness of tests. Patrons 
thus become acquainted with the fat test, and later may be 
led to take up cow testing. 

(100) Factory Statement. The form of factory state- 
ment used upon the printed envelope should be such as to 
give the patrons all essential information from which they 
may figure their own payment if desired, or see how it was 
figured. 

When a maker, disregarding the patron's wishes, hands 
each one a statement, containing only two or three items, 
such as the following, 

Your weight of milk 5898 lbs. 

Your test 3.5 % 

Amount due you $114.57 

it is not surprising that the patrons become dissatisfied, and 
wish for a change. It is always to the maker's advantage, at 
a private or a cooperative factory, to keep the patrons satis- 
fied, and since most factories give a more or less complete 
statement each month, every maker should expect to do so. 
The form on the following page, with some modifications, 
is used at a number of factories, with satisfaction. 



Cheese Factory Management. 73 



STATEMENT OF NORTH MUSCODA ASSOCIATION CHEESE FACTORY 
John Brown, Cheesemaker 

Patron's name 

Month of 191 

Sales include following dates to 

No. pounds of cheese sold lbs. 

Amount of money received $ 

Average price per pound cts. 

No. pounds of milk delivered 

No. pounds of fat delivered 

Average test 

Expense of making cheese 

Money to be divided among patrons 

Price per lb. of fat cts. 

No. pounds of milk delivered by you 

Your average test 

Pounds of fat delivered by you 

Value at cents per pound, equals $ 

Due you for whey cream sold $ 

Total due you $ 

Deduct pounds of cheese at cts per pound 

Check for balance $ 

No. pounds of milk required for 1 pound cheese 

No pounds of cheese from 100 pounds milk 

Date of payment 

Secretary 



74 Cheese Making. 

(101) Economy at a Factory. To avoid unnecessary 
wastes, and maintain the factory and equipment in good 
condition is a part of the work of the conscientious maker, but 
care should be used in planning and erecting a factory to see 
that the convenient and proper arrangement of rooms and 
equipment permits the maker to do his work without waste 
of time, or labor. 

Waste of heat and fuel can be avoided by covering boiler 
and pipes with good insulation or pipe covering. Waste of 
lubricating oil, gasoline, soap, washing powder, tubs or 
boxes used as kindling wood, paper or bandages through 
storage in damp moldy places, waste of time in starting 
work because of lack of rules governing the time of milk 
delivery, unnecessary lifting of milk cans, carrying of cheese 
or hoops, pumping of whey, all of these can be avoided by 
giving attention to the matter at the proper time in building 
or in operating the factory. 

On the other hand, it pays in the long run to provide all 
conveniences, a large enough milk supply, etc., so that a 
competent, experienced maker can be hired, and to pay him 
enough to retain his services and hearty cooperation. The 
low priced maker may be cheaper by the month, but cost 
more by the end of the year on account of waste, losses, etc. 

To save washing powder, it is a help to provide a small 
tank or barrel in which a washing solution of suitable strength 
is prepared and heated for use by a steam jet, instead of 
sprinkling powder or soap on the floor for scrubbing purposes, 
etc. 

The argument is often advanced that a private factory 
owner will be most likely to be careful and saving with sup- 
plies, but at a cooperative factory, where the maker is hoping 
to receive a bonus from the net profits at the end of the year 
(97) he too has reason to avoid waste. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

CHEESE SELLING, AND CHEESE BOARDS. 

(102) Early Methods. In the early days, when farmers 
were entirely unacquainted with the cheese business, the 
management of the factory, and the selling of the cheese, 
and buyers visited the factories and bargained for the out- 
put, even the ownership of the factory was left to the cheese- 
maker. 

In recent years, farmers in some localities have come to 
understand the details of the business, so that they have 
gradually taken over, with more or less success, the owner- 
ship of the factory, the management of the factory, and the 
selling of cheese. Combinations of cheese factories for co- 
operative selling of cheese are now being successfully managed 
in Quebec and in Wisconsin. 

(103) Quebec System. In Montreal, Canada, the 
Quebec Cheesemakers' Cooperative association receives the 
shipments of cheese from many factories at the association 
warehouse, sorts the cheese into three grades, checks the 
weights, and sells the entire receipts in three lots at auction 
to buyers in that city. The cheese judging is done by two 
chief dairy instructors appointed by the Quebec government 
to manage the dairy schools, supervise the system of factory 
inspectors, and inspect the cheese at the cooperative ware- 
house. This system of inspecting Quebec cheese at the city 
of Montreal is possible for the reason that this city is the ex- 
port point, to which the cheese intended for the British 
market must go for loading on board ship, so that no diffi- 
culty is experienced in collecting the cheese at one place. 

(104) Wisconsin Federation. In Wisconsin, there is 
no one exclusive market or point of shipment, so that the 
Quebec system appears impossible of application here. Yet, 
in Sheboygan county, the Wisconsin Cheese Producers Fed- 
eration was organized with about fifty incorporated factories 
as members and has erected its own cold storage warehouse, 



76 Cheese Making. 

where the entire output of its factories is shipped each week 
for sale. The federation has been in successful operation 
for several years, and claims two leading advantages which 
have made it successful, (1) that its cheese are offered for 
sale to the trade, with a charge of only 34 cent added to the 
factory price per pound, to cover the warehouse expense 
including handling, paraffining, management, etc., and 

(2) the details of factory business as to weights of cheese 
shipped and sold, quality of cheese, prices received, etc., are 
all in the hands of the farmers or their representative, the 
warehouse manager. 

(105) Cheese Boards. At the great majority of Amer- 
ican and Canadian factories, cheese is sold each week to a 
buyer who agrees to pay the ruling market price established 
on a specified "cheese board of. trade." There are several 
cheese boards in Wisconsin, located at Plymouth, Sheboygan, 
Appleton, Muscoda, Spring Green, etc., in New York at 
Salamanca, Cuba, Watertown, Canton, Utica, etc., and in 
Canada at Brockville, Cornwall, Belleville, St. Hyacinthe, 
Que., etc. The cheese board is a great time saver for the 
buyers and makers. Formerly, buyers travelled around to 
each factory and bargained with the makers, who had no 
means of knowing what prices were offered at neighboring 
factories, thus causing uncertainty and delay. 

At the cheese board meeting, the secretary writes on the 
blackboard the number of boxes offered of each size cheese 
opposite the factory's name. When all factorymen have 
thus posted their offerings, the buyers begin to bid. The 
secretary writes on the board the highest price offered for each 
factory's cheese and the bidder's initials, and when the bid- 
ding is completed, and everybody is satisfied, the meeting is 
over, taking less than a half hour of time in most cases. The 
makers go home and ship the cheese next day to the buyers, 
who receive and examine the cheese at the warehouse, and 
bring a check in payment at the next board meeting, or else 
send it before the meeting by mail. 

In this way, without loss of time, the cheese from a 
number of near-by factories are sold, and the ruling price 
thus established is used by 'many outside factorymen and 
buyers as a basis for sales, especially at factories located too 



Cheese Selling and Cheese Boards. 77 

far from the board meeting' to permit the maker's attend- 
ance. 

At cheese boards in some localities in the eastern and 
northern cheese regions, the meeting is often adjourned after 
bidding, with all bids withdrawn and no sales made, after 
which the buyers and sellers make private sales, perhaps at 
prices differing from those bid during the meeting. In this 
case, the "board" prices do not represent actual sales. In 
Wisconsin, sales are generally completed at the board meet- 
ing, and the published board prices represent genuine sales 
and market values. 

The cheese board serves the factory's interests better 
when the factories all sell on the board, so that buyers are 
forced to bid up and compete with each other in order to get 
cheese to fill their orders. If a buyer gets cheese from 
20 factories at private sale, based on board prices, but buys 
only 2 or 3 factories' cheese on the board, it is to his interest 
not to bid too high, but to let the cheese on the board go at 
a reasonably low figure, even if a competitor gets them, thus 
keeping the price reasonably low on which the outside fac- 
tories' sales are based. When properly managed, the cheese 
board is a great advantage to both buyers and sellers. 

(106) Selling Undergrade Cheese. All bids made 
are for cheese of good marketable quality unless specified. 
Some buyers inspect all cheese bought at the factory before 
shipment is made or else agree to make no claim for inferior 
quality. Other buyers inspect cheese at the warehouse 
after shipment from the factory. Where sellers take care 
to mark every box of inferior cheese that may be produced 
and notify the buyer when shipped, there is little difficulty 
in coming to a settlement. Inexperienced makers who try 
to pass a poor lot of cheese along with a shipment of good 
cheese, without marking them or notifying the buyer, very 
properly lose money and reputation as a result of such dis- 
honesty. 



CHAPTER XV. 

WHEY CREAM AND WHEY BUTTER. 

(107) Most Factories Skim Whey. In the making 
of Swiss cheese the whey contains .5 to 1 % of fat. It has 
long been the practice at Swiss factories, wherever located, 
to skim the whey, formerly by hand, later by milk separa- 
tors and more recently by the use of the whey separator, 
and to churn the whey cream into whey butter. 

As early as 1908, the manufacture of whey butter at 
Cheddar factories had made substantial progress in New 
York. In 1910, the report was published of a year's work 
in the skimming of whey and the making of whey butter at 
an American cheese factory near Plymouth, Wisconsin, 
showing that about $1,000 was paid to the farmers as their 
share of the profits. In 1911, there were three factories 
engaged in this industry in the same neighborhood. In 1912, 
other factories were reported in New York; and 24 or more 
factories were skimming whey in Sheboygan county, Wis- 
consin. 

Since then, nearly every American cheese factory in 
Wisconsin has installed a whey separator, and found it 
profitable. 

The following questions and answers from Wisconsin 
bulletin 246 will be found helpful in explaining to factory 
patrons the advantages of whey skimming: 

(108) What is Whey Fat? When milk is made into 
American cheese, about nine-tenths of the fat in the milk is 
retained in the cheese; the rest goes into the whey and 
drippings from the curd. Whey fat is therefore good butter 
fat which can be either, (1) separated from the whey, 
churned and sold as whey butter, or (2) can be converted 
into pork. 

(109) How Much Fat is There in the Whey at 
American Cheese Factories? Enough to make from 
about 10 to 20 pounds of butter a year for each good cow 



Whey Cream and Whey Butter. 79 

contributing to the factory. The whey from 100 pounds 
of milk contains about 0.25 to 0.35 per cent or more of fat, 
or about 0.30 pounds of fat, which will make about 0.35 
pounds of whey butter. 

(110) How Does Separated Whey Compare with 
Unskimmed Whey as Feed for Hogs? Unskimmed 
whey contains about 7 per cent of solids, including 0.30 per 
cent of fat ; 5 per cent milk sugar and 1.7 per cent of albumen, 
mineral matter, and other solids. The fat is thus about one 
twenty-third of the total solids in whey. The most careful 
feeding experiments have shown that a pound of fat in feed 
produces about two and one-fourth times as much gain in 
weight of hogs, as does a pound of milk sugar or albumen 
and therefore it is seen that the skimming of whey removes 
only about one-tenth of its feeding value. 

(111) Is It More Profitable to Sell Fat in Whey 
Cream Than to Feed It to Hogs? It is. A pound of 
whey fat fed to a hog may produce a pound of pork worth 
about 17 cents, but a pound of whey fat in the form of 
whey cream sells at about the butter fat price, which is 40 or 
50 cents. 

To replace one pound of fat as hog feed, it is necessary to 
buy about three pounds of grain worth about 10 cents. 
There is left about 15 or 20 cents per pound of fat in whey 
cream, which will amply pay for the expense of skimming, 
and leave the farmer a good profit. At a good many private 
factories the farmer gets half the income from the sale of 
whey cream, or about 20 or 25 cents per pound of fat and 
after paying out 10 cents for grain to replace the fat as 
feed he has left 10 or 15 cents per pound of fat as profit. 
This amounts to 3 or 5 cents gain in price on each 100 pounds 
of milk delivered at the factory. 

(112) The Equipment for Whey Skimming. At 
Swiss factories the curd is taken out first, leaving the whey 
in the kettle, but in American factories the whey is drawn 
first, leaving the curd in the vat. In either case the whey is 
raised by a pump or a steam jet through clean, sanitary 
pipes, arranged so as to be cleaned every time used, to a tin 
lined whey storage tank. In some factories the whey runs 
by gravity from the cheese vat to the tank. 



80 Cheese Making. 

The separator is started immediately and fed from the 
storage tank and the skimmed whey is caught in a large can 
and pumped to the farmers' whey tank. Whey separators 
run by steam turbine are most commonly used. 




Fig. 19BB. — A Sanitary Steam Jet. 

The whey cream is caught in a can, set in a tub of cold 
water, cooled as rapidly as possible, and kept in cold water 
until delivered to the buyer. In warm weather whey cream 
should be delivered every day, if possible, and certainly 
every second day. The curing room is not cool enough for 
the storage of whey cream. It should be kept at the tem- 
perature of fresh, cold, well water, best in a half barrel or 
covered wooden tank. Press drippings are not skimmed, as 
they are likely to injure the quality of whey cream. 

(113) Testing Whey and Skimmed Whey for Fat. 
The Babcock test used for testing milk and cream is also 
used for whey as well as skim milk. For American cheese 
factory whey, the double necked skim milk test bottles 
reading up to 50% fat may be used. After placing 17.6 cc. 
of whey in the bottle, it should be stood in cold water for a 
time to cool the sample. It is best also to use about % of a 
measure of acid and to add the acid in three or four portions 
shaking well after each addition. These precautions are 
taken to avoid a muddy fat column. The skimmed whey 
may also be tested in the same manner to determine how 
well the separator is working. 

In testing whey it is necessary first to obtain a fair 
sample and this can be done by catching a dipperful of 
whey at the time when about half of the whey has run out 



Whey Cream and Whey Butter. 81 

of the vat. Without allowing time for the whey cream to rise, 
a pipetteful of whey is transferred to the test bottle. 

(114) Making Whey Butter. For churning whey 
cream profitably it is necessary that a sufficient quantity be 
collected so as to keep the buttermaker employed. For this 
purpose a factory may purchase whey cream from a number 
of neighboring factories and sell whey butter in tubs or 
prints. The overrun in churning whey butter amounts to 
about one-sixth, on the average; that is, the butter weighs 
about one-sixth more than the fat in the whey cream, the 
same as with ordinary butter. In paying for the fat in whey 
cream at the same price per pound as the butter sells for, 
the profit comes only from the overrun. It is seen, then, 
that the value of whey fat is more than doubled by whey 
skimming but is increased only one-sixth by churning. For 
this reason the great majority of cheese factories prefer to 
sell whey cream, and buy whey butter for sale to the patrons. 

A few factories churn whey cream two or three times a 
week, even in small quantities in order to supply whey 
butter to patrons at the lowest possible price. 

For churning whey cream alone, it is preferable that the 
whey cream contain 50 or 60% fat, so that 60 to 100% of 
starter may be added, reducing the fat content to about 30% 
the day before churning. 

As the whey fat is, if anything, a trifle softer than ordi- 
nary butter fat, the whey cream should be cooled to a some- 
what lower temperature than ordinary cieam, held cold for 
at least four hours, better over night, and churned a few 
degrees colder than with ordinary cream. The churn is 
stopped when the butter is in small granules, about the size 
of wheat grains. The butter is washed with water at about 
the same temperature, salted and worked and packed in the 
usual manner. Butter made wholly or partly from whey 
cream must be labeled "Whey Butter" to conform to 
Wisconsin law. Experience has shown that many consumers 
eat whey butter without prejudice, but others .refuse to ex- 
amine or buy a package labeled "whey butter," because 
they recail the old time whey butter of 20 years ago, which 
was inferior. 



82 



Cheese Making. 



(115) Other Uses for Whey Cream. Whey cream is 
sold in large quantities for other purposes than buttermak- 
ing. It is used with entire success in ice cream mixtures for 
which no special label is required. To insure good quality 
in whey cream and its products, the same care and sanitary 
precautions should be used as with ordinary cream, that is 
the milk should be of good quality and the cream cooled 
promptly after skimming, kept cold and delivered before it 
becomes old and stale. 

(116) Distributing Whey Cream Money. The 
money from the sale of whey cream is used partly to pay the 
expense of skimming which may amount to one-half or less 
and the patrons get the rest. All patrons should be paid at 
the same price per ICO pounds of milk delivered. The per- 
centage of fat in whey from 4.5% milk is almost the same 
and only a very little higher than in whey from 3.5% milk. 
It would not be fair to add the whey cream money to the 
cheese money, and distribute it all at a fixed price per pound 
of fat in the milk; but the cheese money and the whey 
cream money should be figured separately and then added 
together. 

At the Minnesota Experiment Station in 1892 cheese was 
made from normal milk of different fat contents. The 
following table shows the losses of fat from these different 
milks: 

LOSSES OF FAT IN MILK OF DIFFERENT FAT CONTENTS 



Per cent fat in milk 

Average per cent fat in whey 
Number of trials 



3.5 to 4 


4 to 4.4 


4.5 to 5 


.38 


.36 


.39 


28 


31 


11 



5 to 5.5 
.32 
4 



S'milar results have been obtained in Wisconsin and 
New York. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

PAYMENTS FOR CHEESE FACTORY MILK. 

(117) Aim. In making. payments for milk to patrons 
at a cheese factory, it is intended to pay each patron accord- 
ing to the cheese making value of his milk ; that is, according 
to the weight of cheese which his milk would yield if made 
into cheese by itself. 

(118) Pooling System. From about 1850, when the 
first cooperative factories were started in this country, 
to 1890, when the Babcock test was invented, cheese factory 
profits were divided among patrons in proportion to the 
weight of milk delivered by each ; that is, according to the 
pooling system. This system is now generally recognized to 
be very unfair, and is no longer used at the majority of 
factories. 

(119) Payment According to the Babcock Test. 
After the Babcock test lor fat in milk came into use it was 
found that 100 pounds of milk from one herd do not yield 
as much cheese as 100 pounds o f milk from another herd 
but that the yield of cheese is more nearly proportioned to 
the weight of fat in the milk than to the weight of the milk 
itself. At the present time, the great majority of American 
cheese factories in Wisconsin use the Babcock test as the 
basis of milk payments and its use has also spread all over 
the United States and to many foreign countries. 

(120) Comparison ot Payments by Different 
Methods. For illustration, suppose that five patrons 
delivered each 100 pounds of milk at a factory. The milk 
yielded 53 pounds of cheese which sold at 22 cents a pound. 
After paying the maker 2 cents a pound for making, there 
was left $10.60 to be divided among the patrons. How 
much money should each man receive? 

Under the pooling system, the money, $10.60, is divided 
by 5 which gives $2.12, the price to be paid per hundred 



84 Cheese Making. 

pounds of milk. All patrons received the same price per 
hundred, as follows: 

Patron No 12 3 4 5 

Pooling system $2.12 $2.12 $2.12 $2.12 $2.12 

By the Babcock test, the milk was tested for fat, as fol- 
lows: 

Patron No 12 3 4 5 

Fat test, % 3.0% 3.5% 4.0% 4.5% 5.0% 

Wt. of fat in milk 3.0 lbs. 3.5 lbs. 4.0 lbs. 4.5 lbs. 5.0 lbs. 

The total weight of fat in the 500 lbs. of milk was 20 lbs. 
Dividing the $10.60 by 20 gives 53 cents, the price per pound 
of fat to be paid to each patron. The patrons received 
amounts, as follows: 

Fat test payments $1.59 $1,855 $2.12 $2,385 $2.65 

In comparison with the fat test payments, it is seen that 
the pooling system pays patron No. 1, 53 cents too much, 
and No. 5 gets 53 cents too little. Patrons 2 and 4 receive 
payments which are wrong by 26 cents on 100 lbs. of milk. 
Only patron 3 receives the same payment by both methods 
of figuring, and the reason is that patron 3 has a fat test equal 
to the average test of all the milk delivered at the factory. 

By the pooling system, only those patrons receive correct 
payments whose fat test is the same as the factory average 
test. The farther a patron's test is from the factory average 
test, the farther his payments by the pooling system are 
from being correct. Pooling system payments are gener- 
ally so unfair that this system should not be used at any 
whole milk cheese factory. 

(121) The Yield of Cheese From Milk of Different 
Test, (a) Roughly, about 1 pound of cheese is obtained 
from 10 lbs. of milk, On the average, but this form of state- 
ment is not exactly correct, for it is well known that richer 
milk gives more cheese, while low testing milk gives less 
cheese, than 1 to 10. 

(b) The yield of cheese is more or less closely related to 
the richness of the milk, and it has been found that the aver- 
age yield of cheese from milk can be figured by multiplying 
the weight of fat in the milk by 2.7, or for cured cheese, the 
figure 2.6 is used. 



Payments for Cheese Factory Milk. 85 

The first rule is very inaccurate because it makes the 
cheese yield proportionate to the weight of the milk, the same 
as the~ pooling system of payment. 

The second rule is slightly inaccurate because it makes 
the cheese yield proportionate to the weight of fat in the 
milk, as in payments according to the straight fat test 
method.' 

Payments by the Babcock test method are much nearer 
correct than payments by the pooling system. The question 
is often asked as to whether payments by the fat test are 
exactly correct. Is the yield of cheese exactly proportional 
to the fat test of the milk? Will 100 pounds of 6% milk 
yield twice as much cheese as 100 pounds of 3% milk? 

(c) This question has been studied more extensively at 
the New York (Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station 
than elsewhere, and the average yields of cheese (containing 
37% of moisture) obtained from milk of different test have 
been tabulated by Van Slyke as follows, which figures may 
be used until further light is thrown on the subject by 
future investigations. 

Fat test. % 3.0% 3.5% 4.0% 4.5% 5.0% Total 

Cheese yield, lbs 8.3 9.45 10.6 11.74 12.9 52.99 

From these average yields, at 20 cents per pound, the 
value of the cheese from 100 lb. lots of milk may be figured. 

Fat test, % 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 Total 

Yield value $1.66 $1.89 $2.12 $2,348 $2.58 $10,598 

(122) Comparison of Fat Test Payments and Yield 
Values. Comparing the fat test payments and the yield 
values for the five lots of milk, as given above, the differences 
are found by subtraction, and the difference in each case, 
per dollar, are as shown below. 

Fat test of milk 3.0% 3.5% 4.0% 4.5% 5.0% 

Babcock payment $1.59 $1,855 $2.12 $2,385 $2.65 

Yield value 1.66 1.89 2.12 2.348 2-. 58 

Difference per cwt 07 .035 .00 .037 .07 

Difference per $ 044 .019 .00 Oil .0264 

Using the yield values as the standard, it is seen that 
the fat test payments agree with them within 2 cents on the 
dollar, in the cases of patrons 2, 3, and 4, whose fat tests are 
3.5%, 4.0 and 4.5%. In general, it is true that when the 



86 Cheese Making. 

highest patron's test at a factory is not more than 1% fat 
above the lowest test at that factory for the month, the fat 
test payments for that milk agree with the New York yield 
values within two cents on the dollar. At all such cheese 
factories, the fat test method of payment should be used, 
because it gives payments correct within two cents on the 
dollar, that is, almost exactly correct. 

On the other hand, there is a second class of factories at 
which the highest patron's test is more than 1 % and possibly 
even 2%, above the lowest patron's test, during the month. 
Here, where there are patrons like Nos. 1 and 5 above, the 
errors in payment per dollar are greater than 2 cents on the 
dollar, and may be over 4 cents per dollar, as shown. In all 
such cases, it may be desirable to use some modified method 
of figuring payments from the fat test, such as the fat plus 
six-tenths method described below, in order to make the 
payments equal the New York yield values, to all patrons. 

(123) The Highest and Lowest Fat Tests at Differ- 
ent Factories. From a study of 15,000 payments to cheese 
factory patrons based on the Babcock test, reported to the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station from factories in many 
counties in this state, it was found that in 95% of all cases 
the highest patron's test at the factory was not more than 
1% fat above the lowest patron's test. From this the con- 
clusion was drawn that at the very large majority of cheese 
factories, payments should be based on the straight fat test, 
and at only a few factories is a modified method needed. 

(124) The Fat Plus Six-Tenths Method. The sim- 
plest method of figuring which will give payments equal to 
the yield values (section 121 is called the fat plus six-tenths 
method. This consists in adding .6% fat to each patron's 
fat test, then multiplying the test plus .6% by the patron's 
weight of milk, to get the weight of "fat plus .6" in the milk. 
The method and its results are as follows : 

Patron 12 3 4 5 Total 

Fattest 3.0% 3.5% 4.0% 4.5% 5.0% 

Fat test plus six-tenths 3.6% 4.1% 4.6% 5.1% 5.6% 

Lbs. fat plus .6 3.6 4.1 4.6 5.1 5.6 23 lbs. 

Dividing $10.60 by 23 gives 46.087 cents, the price per lb., 
and multiplying this figure by each patron's weight of "fat 



Payments for Cheese Factory Milk. 87 

plus .6" gives the following values for the different lots of 
milk, which will be seen to agree closely with the yield values 
above : 

$1,659 $1,889 $2.12 $2.35 $2,581 $10,599 

This method is recommended for use at the few factories 
where patron's milk tests differ by more than 1 % fat be- 
tween the highest and the lowest during the month, and 
where the patrons become dissatisfied with payments by the 
straight fat test, for this reason. 

(125) The Fat Plus 2 Method. This was proposed 
and used to some extent in Canada. To illustrate the method 
it is applied to the five patrons as follows: 

Patron No 12 3 4 5 Total 

Fat test, % 3.0/3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 

Fat test plus 2% 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 

Lbs. fat plus 2 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 30.0 

Dividing $10.60 by 30 gives 35.33 cents, the price per lb. 
Multiplying this price by each patron's weight of "fat plus 
2," gives the following values for the different lots of milk: 

$1,766 $1,943 $2.12 $2,296 $2,473 $10,598 

Comparing these values with the preceding, it is seen that 
while the payment to patron 1 by the straight fat method is 
7 cents lower than the yield value, the fat plus 2 payment is 
10.6 cents higher than the yield value. The figure 2 is too 
large to add to the fat tests, while the figure .6% is just right 
to make the payments equal the New York yield values. 

(126) The Fat Plus Calculated Casein Method. As 
this method gives exactly the same milk values and payments 
to patrons as the fat plus six-tenths method, but is consider- 
ably more complicated to figure than the latter, it need not 
be illustrated here. 

The method is based upon the view advanced by Van 
Slyke that the cheese yield of milk is proportional to the 
percent of fat plus the percent of casein, and that the casein 
percent can be calculated, with sufficient accuracy for the 
purpose, from the fat test, by the formula (Fat test — 3. %)x 
.4 plus 2.1% equals calculated casein%. Some fat tests and 
the corresponding calculated casein tests are as follows: 

Fattest 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 

Casein per cent calculated 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 



88 Cheese Making. 

From these figures it will be seen that the casein in 3% 
milk is 7 /10 of the fat, but in high testing, 4.5% milk, is 2.7% 
equal to 6/10 of the fat. The fact that high testing milk 
usually carries less casein per pound of fat, and yields less 
cheese per pound of fat than low testing milk is generally 
recognized. 

(127) Payments Based on Fat Test and Casein 
Test. Instead of figuring the casein test of milk by the 
formula given above, according to Van Slyke, it was suggest- 
ed by Hart that the casein should be determined directly by 
use of a casein test, since the observed casein test of milk 
often differs more or less from the calculated casein percent. 

The only way to determine whether the casein test is 
required at a given factory is to use it at that factory for 
several months, and compare the payments figured, first, 
by the fat plus six-tenths method, and second, by the fat test 
plus casein test. If the payments differ as a rule more than 
2 cents per dollar paid, the use of the casein test may appear 
justified. Very few factories now use the casein test. The 
correct handling of the Hart casein test is more difficult than 
with the Babcock fat test. When a fat test is improperly 
made, the appearance of the fat column gives an indication 
of the fact, and of the method by which the error can be 
avoided. Fat test duplicates should always agree within 
.1% fat. Casein tests may read larger or smaller according 
to the temperature of the milk and the reagents when mixed, 
or according to the time and speed of centrifuging, but there 
is nothing about the appearance of the finished Casein test 
to indicate that any error in method has occurred. Duplicate 
casein tests frequently differ by .2% casein, when run with 
care by an experienced person. 

(128) Hart Casein Test. For the casein test, samples 
preserved with potassium bichromate are used, although for 
the fat test the use of corrosive sublimate as a preservative is 
preferable. The casein test milk samples are best held in 
brown bottles to preserve them from the action of light. 

With reagents, milk samples and workroom at about 70 
degrees, the test bottles are filled with (1) 20 cc. of 34 % 
acetic acid, (2) 2 cc. of chloroform, (3) 5 cc. of the composite 
milk sample run into the middle of the acid, not down the 



Payments for Cheese Factory Milk. 89 

side of the test bottle. After mixing by shaking not over 20 
seconds, the samples are centrifuged in a special hand tester, 
for l l /2 to 8 minutes, at 55-56 revolutions of the handle per 
minute, with the aid of a metronome or pendulum. ■ After 




Fig. 19C. — The Hart Casein Test Outfit. 

centrifuging, the test bottles are left to stand for 10 minutes 
before reading the figures on the graduated part containing 
the pellet of casein. 

(129) "Correct Difference per Tenth" Method of 
Payment. Following the example of condensaries and 
city milk dealers, a few factories pay an average price for 
milk of average test, and add to the average price a certain 
number of cents, 3, 4, 5, or 6, for each tenth percent of fat 
test above the factory average test, making a similar sub- 
traction from the price when milk is below the average in 
fat test. 

This method gives correct payments, agreeing with the 
yield values of the milk, if the correct difference in price for 
.1% difference in fat test is figured out correctly each month, 
as this figure is likely to change every month, with the 
changing price of cheese. The use of a fixed difference per 
tenth, as 3 cents or 6 cents, is sure to produce payments 
differing from the yield values of the milk. 

To get the correct difference per tenth each month, it is 
necessary to multiply the "average price per pound of fat" 



90 Cheese Making. 

by the figure .0868. Thus, if the average price per pound of 
fat is 50 cents, the correct difference per tenth is 4.34 cents. 

(130) Pound For Ten Method of Payment. In this 
method, the price of one pound of cheese is paid for each 10 
lbs. of milk delivered at the factory. As this system is based 
entirely upon the weight of milk delivered, and pays the 
same price per hundred pounds of milk to all patrons, it is 
equally as unjust as the pooling system, and should not be 
used at any cheese factory, as a basis of payment to patrons. 

(131) Calculating Dividends by the Fat Test. 
The Babcock Test is now quite generally used at American 
cheese factories where it has replaced the old and very 
unjust "pooling system" of paying for milk and cream. To 
calculate the amount of money to be paid each patron at a 
cooperative factory it is first necessary to add the receipts 
from all sales made during the month, and subtract from this 
sum the running expenses, including supplies, labor, etc., as 
for example: 

Total sales, month of June, 1913 $2,101.23 

Total expenses, month of June, 1913 175.00 

Proceeds to be divided among patrons $1 ,926.23 

This amount of money, $1,926.23, is to be divided among 
the patrons in proportion to the weight of butter fat delivered 
by each. At most factories, composite samples of the milk 
delivered by each patron are tested twice a month. To cal- 
culate how much money each man should receive, it is 
necessary first to add up the columns on the factory milk 
sheet shown below to find out how many pounds of milk 
each patron delivered during the first and second halves of 
the month. From the record of weights and tests upon the 
milk sheet for patron No. 1, it is seen that between June 1 
and 14 he delivered 3,123 pounds of milk, testing 4.2 per cent 
fat, which contained 131.2 pounds of fat. Between June 15 
and 30 he delivered 3,010 pounds of milk testing 4.1 per cent 
fat or 123.4 pounds of fat, making a total of 254.6 pounds of 
fat during the month. In a similar way can be found the 
weight of fat delivered by each of the ten patrons during the 
month. Add these all together to find the total weight of 
butter fat delivered at the factory as follows: 



Payments for Cheese Factory Milk. 



91 



Patron's number Pounds fat delivered 
j 254.6 

2"."".'". 567 - 5 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 : 

10 



Total pounds fat. 



.8,175.4 



(132) Factory Milk Sheets Moneta Factory, June, 
1910. 



Patron's No. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


7. 


8. 


9. 


10. 


Date 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


June, 1910. 


Milk 


Milk 


Milk 


Milk 


Milk 


Milk 


Milk 


Milk 


Milk 


Milk 


1. 


215 


420 


130 


557 


698 


986 


1548 


317 


811 


1400 


2. 


210 


425 


124 


543 


687 


980 


1537 


324 


820 


1393 


3. 


216 


419 


139 


569 


700 


975 


1530 


333 


831 


1380 


4. 


210 


427 


127 


557 


682 


983 


1559 


325 


815 


1410 


5. 


213 


410 


120 


550 


674 


989 


1545 


328 


827 


1390 


6. 


215 


425 


128 


561 


683 


995 


1560 


329 


809 


1427 


7. 


221 


435 


137 


569 


690 


1018 


1572 


330 


819 


1438 


8. 


232 


430 


130 


574 


698 


992 


1558 


337 


831 


1395 


9. 


236 


428 


133 


.565 


680 


987 


1568 


330 


837 


1396 


10. 


223 


420 


137 


563 


703 


985 


1580 


324 


822 


1358 


11. 


222 


431 


146 


579 


694 


989 


1589 


338 


814 


1400 


12. 


245 


435 


140 


570 


687 


996 


1576 


345 


809 


1430 


• 13. 


236 


439 


150 


583 


675 


990 


1589 


350 


828 


1411 


14. 


229 


447 


143 


580 


684 


1019 


1580 


337 


835 


1436 


Total Milk 


3123 




















Test % 


4.2 


4.4 


3.8 


4.1 


3.7 


3.6 


3.5 


3.2 


3.8 


3.9 


Lbs. Fat. 


131.2 




















15. 


220 


450 


153 


585 


695 


1007 


1575 


350 


840 


1470 


16. 


215 


445 


159 


597 


693 


995 


1587 


347 


851 


1462 


17. 


206 


453 


152 


580 


704 


990 


1596 


358 


838 


1497 


18. 


197 


462 


147 


583 


711 


999 


1584 


363 


847 


1460 


19. 


190 


465 


158 


590 


725 


1011 


1598 


355 


859 


1475 


20. 


180 


460 


150 


599 


698 


1015 


1580 


347 


850 


1483 


21. 


180 


455 


141 


587 


700 


992 


1603 


359 


862 


1479 


22. 


175 


465 


158 


580 


715 


989 


1592 


363 


852 


1470 


23. 


180 


469 


162 


593 


704 


996 


1610 


354 


845 


1465 


24. 


172 


473 


168 


585 


719 


990 


1619 


359 


858 


1475 


25. 


181 


462 


158 


579 


711 


998 


1597 


352 


849 


1480 


26. 


189 


475 


167 


570 


730 


986 


1618 


348 


851 


1473 


27. 


182 


467 


154 


578 


725 


979 


1595 


340 


857 


1481 


28. 


180 


453 


169 


585 


739 


984 


1589 


346 


846 


1490 


29. 


178 


478 


153 


592 


747 


996 


1611 


341 


843 


1470 


30. 


185 


488 


160 


597 


732 


1010 


1620 


350 


870 


1486 


Total Milk 


3010 




















Test % 


4 1 


4.1 


3.7 


4.3 


3.9 


3.8 


3.6 


3.3 


3.5 


3.6 


Lbs. Fat. 


123.4 




















Total fat 






















for month. 


254.6 





















The factory milk sheet at the end of the month, shows the total fat delivered 
by patron No. 1. The reader may complete the calculation for the other nine 
patrons. 



92 



Cheese Making. 



Dividing the proceeds, $1,926.23, by the total number 
of pounds of fat delivered, 8,175.4 gives the price to be paid 
the patrons for each pound of butter fat delivered, which in 
this case is $.2356. 

The amount of money due each patron is found by mul- 
tiplying the number of pounds of fat delivered, by the price 
of butter fat, in this case $.2356, as shown below. 



Patron's number. 


Pounds 

fat 

delivered. 


Price per pound for 
butter fat. 


Amounts 
due the 
patrons. 


1 


254.6 
567.5 


Multiplied bv $0.2356 


$59.98 


2 




■ " 




3 .. 




4 






5. 






6 . 






7 






8.. .. 






9 






10 








Total 










8,175.4 


Total 


$1 ,926.11 











The patrons are entitled to the amounts given in the last 
column and there remain also 12 cents undivided, which 
amount is carried over to the following month, as cash on 
hand. 

A valuable exercise for students is to figure out the 
amount of money due to each patron in the list above, 
according to the method there used. 

In addition the payments for the same milk may be 
figured by the fat plus six-tenths method, and by the pooling 
system, for comparison, with the understanding that the 
pooling system is the most unjust method of payment which 
has ever been used at cheese factories. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

CONDITIONS AFFECTING CHEESE CURING. 

(133A) Curing Agents. Cheese in curing becomes 
more soluble in water, waxy in textilre instead of curdy, 
and acquires flavor. These changes are caused by various 
agents, including rennet enzymes, bacteria, bacterial enzy- 
mes, acid, and molds growing in or on cheese. Curing is 
delayed by salt and cold, and hastened by moisture and 
warmth. 

(133B) General Considerations. Success in ripening 
cheese depends partly (1) on the way the cheese is made 
and partly on the conditions of (2) temperature and (3) hu- 
midity under which it is cured. 

Very dry cheese, as Saanen , may require one to six years 
for curing to ripen fully. The English market prefers 
cheese ripened for several months. American cheese con- 
taining 36 to 40% of moisture often reaches the consumer at 
an age of one month, in accordance with the modern tendency 
to market such products as early as possible. Holding 
American cheese several hours at the temperature of the vat 
before putting it to press cures the cheese more than a much 
longer time at the lower temperature of the curing room. 
The use of more salt delays curing somewhat. 

(134) Curing Room Temperature. The tempera- 
ture in the curing room should be regulated. Curing goes 
on more rapidly at higher temperatures, but with injury to 
quality if too warm. On the other hand, cheese cures more 
slowly at lower temperatures, but without injury to the 
quality of American cheese which was first demonstrated at 
the. Wisconsin station. 

The curing room of the ordinary American cheese fac- 
tory is really a storage and drying room in most cases, 
where cheese are kept for only a few days (3 to 10 days) 
until dry enough on the surface and until a suitable quantity 



94 Cheese Making. 

is obtained for shipment. to the buyer. In summer cheese 
are sold weekly, and shipped twice a week. Such factory 
curing room temperatures may go as high as 80-9U in 
summer and an accidental delay in shipping through lack 
of boxes or cars may cause serious injury to the quality of 
cheese and undue shrinkage in weight through continued 
storage at too high temperatures. 

Such conditions are avoided in many well built curing 
rooms in Canada and elsewhere, having well insulated walls 
two feet thick, and provided with an adjacent ice house, 
from which cool air can be circulated through the cheese 
room, when necessary, to maintain a temperature of about 
60-65 degrees for the best quality of American cheese. 

Wisconsin storage warehouses, where cheese are kept 
for 6 months or more, are held at about 34 degrees by use 
of mechanical refrigeration, or at 40 to 50 degrees by use of 
ice or ice and salt. The Canadian cool-curing warehouses 
are kept at 55-60 degrees F. 

Means employed to cool the factory curing room a few 
degrees include: (1) Running 1 i^-inch galvanized iron pipes 
several times along the curing room walls and connecting 
them to the pump,. so that all water pumped at the factory 
is used first for cooling the curing room. (2) A rack at one 
side of the room into which a few cakes of ice can be placed 
when needed, is used at several factories. (3) A sub-earth 
duct, consisting of three to thirteen parallel lines of drain 
tile about 100 feet long buried six to twelve feet underground 
is connected to a stack provided with a revolving cowl, 
which always faces the wind. The air passing down the 
stack and through the tile, is delivered into the curing 
room, which is thus well cooled. A similar and rather more 
satisfactory arrangement consists in conducting the air from 
the stack down a pipe into a deep well, while the air issuing 
from the top of the well passes out into the curing room. 
(4) Factories located near a pond or stream can easily store 
ice in winter and a cheese storage room is frequently built in 
so as to be covered with ice as long as any is left in the ice 
house. 

Swiss cheese are sometimes cured at 90° and hand 
cheese at 100° F., or above. 



Conditions Affecting Cheese Curing. 95 

(135) Curing Room Humidity. The humidity of the 
curing room is of importance, since with too dry air the 
shrinkage in weight may be excessive and both yield and 
quality reduced, while with too moist air the cheese rapidly 
become moldy on the surface and do not dry properly or 
form a rind. 

As the outside air in this country is usually much drier 
than necessary for cheese curing it is best to keep the 
cheese curing room closed most of the time. In summer this 
is an advantage also in keeping the room cooler than the 
outside air. When the nights are cooler than the days in 
summer the room may be ventilated by opening a window 
at night. If the cheese become moldy on the surface, clue 
to too much dampness, daily ventilation will be found to 
correct the tendency. 

After American cheese are well dried on the surface 
they are paraffined and returned to the cheese boxes in 
which they are kept during storage. The dry rind and the 
paraffine coating check the growth of mold, and storage in 
the box also checks further drying out. 

The humidity of air in the curing room where soft cheese 
as Limburger, Brie, etc., are cured is higher than for Ameri- 
can cheese in order to keep these soft cheese from drying out. 
For this purpose a spray of water may be kept flowing from 
a nozzle through the air or the floor may be kept wet, or 
wet cloths may be hung up. In France, where Brie and 
Camembert cheese are made in large quantities, the air is 
always naturally moister, due to easterly sea winds, than in 
the eastern part of this country. A curing room is more 
easily kept moist if it is nearly Idled with cheese, and where 
only^a few soft cheese are made, a small room or closet is 
best or the cheese may be kept covered with a wooden box 
to protect them from air currents. To destroy molds in the 
curing room fumigate with burning sulphur or formalin gas 
or scrub and then whitewash the walls and ceiling. 

(136) Measuring Humidity. The humidity of air 
in the curing room can be measured by use of the hygro- 
meter or by a pair of wet and dry bulb thermometers, which 
arrangement is called a psychrometer, the best form of 
which is the sling psychrometer which is whirled rapidly by 



96 



Cheese Making. 



hand in the air. In a dry room the water on the wet ther- 
mometer bulb evaporates rapidly causing a cooling effect so 
that the wet bulb thermometer reads lower than the one 
with a dry bulb. The greater the difference in reading 
between the two thermometers the drier the air is in the 
room while if the air is saturated with moisture there will be 
no evaporation from the wet bulb and the two instruments 




Fig. 19D. — The Sling psychrometer. 



will read alike. The per cent of humidity may be read from 
the following table. Thus if the wet bulb reads 54 and the 
dry bulb reads 60, the humidity is 54%, meaning that the 
air then holds 54% or about half as much air as it could 
possibly hold if saturated. If the humidity is above 90%, 
cheese are likely to become moldy in a short time and 
require frequent washing. 



Conditions Affecting Cheese Curing. 



97 



(137) Table Showing the Relative Humidity in the 
Air of Curing Rooms. 

Directions. Notice that the table is in three column 
sections. Find air temperature in first column, then find 
wet bulb temperature in second column, same division. In 
third column opposite this is relative humidity. 

Example. Air temperature is 50°, in first column; wet 
bulb is 44°, in second column, same division. Opposite 44° 
is 61, which is the per cent of saturation, or the relative 
humiditv of the air. 



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98 



Cheese Making. 



HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING ROOM— Continued 



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59 
65 
70 
76 
82 
88 
94 


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49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 


47 
52 
57 
62 
67 
72 
78 
83 
89 
94 


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63 


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52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 


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46 
51 
55 
60 
64 
69 




41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 


35 
40 
46 
51 
57 
63 
69 
75 
81 
87 
94 


74 
79 
84 
89 
95 


52 


56 


44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 


34 
39 
44 
50 
55 
60 
65 
71 
77 
82 
88 
94 


60 


48 
49 
50 
51 
5.2 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
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39 
44 
48 
53 
58 
63 
68 
73 
78 
84 
89 
94 






64 


52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 


43 
47 
51 




41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
45 
49 
50 
51 
52 


31 
36 
41 

52 
58 
63 
69 
75 
81 
87 
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56 
60 
65 
70 
74 
79 
85 
90 
95 


53 


57 


45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
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40 
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50 
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66 
71 
77 
83 
88 
94 


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50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 


40 
44 
49 
54 
58 
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78 
84 
89 
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54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 


44 
48 
52 




42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 


32 
37 
42 
48 
53 
59 
64 
70 
76 
82 
88 
94 


56 
61 
65 
70 
75 
80 
85 
90 
95 


54 


58 


46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 


37 
42 
46 
51 
56 
61 
67 
72 
78 
83 
89 
94 




62 


50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 


41 
45 
50 
54 
59 
64 
69 
74 
79 
84 
89 
95 




66 


53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 


40 
45 
49 


55 


43 
44 
45 
46 
47 


33 
38 
43 
49 

54 




53 
57 
61 
66 


59 


47 
48 


38 
43 




71 
75 

80 



Conditions Affecting Cheese Curing. 



99 



HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING ROOM— Continued. 



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62 
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55 
56 
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59 
60 
61 
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63 
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91 
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56 
57 
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59 
60 
61 
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66 
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46 
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71 
76 
81 
85 
90 
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68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
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53 
57 
60 
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75 
79 
83 
87 
91 


68 


72 


59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
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49 
53 
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69 
73 
77 
82 
86 
91 
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76 


63 

64 

65. 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 


48 
52 
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59 
63 
66 
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74 
78 
82 
87 
91 
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56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 


-43 
47 
51 
55 
59 
63 
67 
72 
76 
81 
86 
90 
95 




80 


66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 


47 
51 
54 
57 
61 
64 
68 
72 
75 
79 
83 
87 
92 
96 


69 


73 


60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 


46 
50 
53 
57 
61 
65 
69 
73 
78 
82 
86 
91 




77 


64 
65 
66 
67 
68 
69 


49 
52 
56 
60 
63 
67 


70 


57 • 
58 
59 
60 


44 
48 
52 
55 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

CLEANLINESS IN THE CHEESE FACTORY. 

(138) Suggestions. Keeping the cheese factory clean 
is the duly of the maker. In order to i>et ahead with any 
important piece; of work, it is necessary not only to do the 
daily work in good shape and on time, but also to devote a 
little time each day to planning or putting into effect some 
improvements. Each day there is either a little more dirt 
collected in the factory, or the factory is cleaner than before, 
depending largely on the maker's attitude toward his work. 
No maker need have a dirty Factory unless he is willing to do 
so. On the other hand, a well planned and built factory 
is more likely to be well kept, also. 

Dirt is material in the wrong place. Thus, milk in the 
vat is milk, but milk on the floor or walls is dirt. It is impor- 
tant to have the factory and equipment so planned, construct- 
ed, and arranged that the work of making cheese can be 
carried on without waste of material, as milk, coal, lubri- 
cating oil, and without waste of supplies, labor, or time. 

A good ride in a cheese factorj is to clean every utensil, 
immediately after using it, before it has time to get dry, 
because it is easier to clean, and dirt does not accumulate 
when this is done. 

(139) Steam Meal. Steam heal in the factory permits 
pasteurization of starter milk, insures a plentiful supply of 
scalding water lor cleaning purposes, and enables the maker 
to comply with the law as to pasteurization of factory by- 
products led to farm animals. It is of the utmost importance 
as an aid in keeping the factory and curing room free from 
yeasts, or other infections, such as those causing red spots on 
cheese, or bloated cheese, since these germs can generally he 

exterminated by steaming and scalding utensils and equip- 
ment. 

As .in influence in favor of cleanliness, a fresh coal of 
paint on the outside of the factory building is perhaps more 



Cleanliness in the Cheese Factory. 101 

powerful than any other one factor. With the building look- 
ing fresh and attractive, the appearance of the surrounding 
yard demands attention, and a weedy lawn, muddy drive, 
or pile of old tinware and vats begins to look offensive and 
out of place. 

In a bright and freshly painted intake, what maker can 
work in a dirty pair of overalls, or fail to wash up spattered 
milk? 

The overalls can readily be scrubbed every night in a few 
minutes, rinsed and hung up on the line, thus always having 
a clean pair ready for the next day. If there is no better way 
at hand, soak them in hot soapsuds in a pail for a few minutes, 
spread them out on the floor, and brush thoroughly with the 
scrub brush. 

A pair of gloves or mitts, kept at the boiler room door and 
put on when shoveling coal will save much time and keep the 
hands clean. An outer apron, put on when shoveling coal, 
loading cheese, or doing any work outside of the make room, 
will help to keep the dirt where it belongs. 

(140) Odors. Probably the most discouraging thing 
about some cheese factories in the past has been the foul 
odor from the decomposition of spilled whey. A cement 
block below the whey delivery pipe (89) will correct this, 
and enable the maker to admit a visitor to the factory with 
out a feeling of shame at the odor. 

A shower bath of the simplest kind .can be provided by 
enclosing a small corner, and erecting a shelf about six feet 
high on which to place a pail of warm water with a spigot or 
both warm and cold water can be piped to a sprinkler placed 
over head for daily use by the cheesemaker. 

Cheese hoops can be quickly cleaned and freed from "milk 
stone" by dipping first in hot water, and then rubbing while 
hot with a brush dipped in a strong lye solution, which will 
quickly loosen and remove the adhering material from the 
inside' of the cheese hoop. Cheese hoops which are well 
tinned can also be left to soak in sour whey, over night, and 
then scrubbed. 

Press cloths which become hard and stiff from dried 
whey, etc., absorbed with repeated use, are made soft and 
pliable again by soaking in sour whey, or as some prefer, in 



102 Cheese Making. 

a pail of water containing a little sulphuric acid, after which 
they are washed and dried. Press cloths should be washed 
daily, and kept clean, the same as hoops, followers, or the 
cheese press, or strainer cloth. 

The floor, the outside as well as the inside of the vats, the 
intake walls, curing shelves, the whey tank, and the windows 
require regular attention and care, the same as all -other 
parts of the factory and equipment, to keep them clean. 

(141) Paint, etc. It is often found easier to put a new 
coat of paint on the ceiling and walls of the make room than 
to scrub them. 

The accumulation of junk in corners should not be per- 
mitted. A place for everything, and everything in its place, 
is a good rule. 

The use of disinfectants can never fully take the place of 
hot water, washing powder, and the scrubbing brush for re- 
moving particles of milk, curd, grease and dirt which other- 
wise may accumulate, adhere, and decay in the corners and 
on the surface of dairy utensils, pipes, etc. 

Many other suggestions on cleanliness will occur to the 
wideawake cheesemaker or helper, and are given in publica- 
tions of the Dairy and Food Commissioner relative to 
licenses for factories and makers. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE FOOD VALUE OF CHEESE. 

(142) "Eat More Cheese." This should be the house- 
wife's motto, when she understands the facts. The ordinary 
"store" cheese, or American cheese, is well known for its 
attractive flavor, and it remains to make equally well known 
the facts (1) a pound of cheese has practically twice the food 
value of a pound of meat, and (2) that it is easily and com- 
pletely digestible, without causing indigestion or constipa- 
tion, when eaten with other foods, as bread and fruits or 
vegetables. 

(143) Cheese Costs Less. Cheese contains about 37% 
moisture, and no waste, while round steak contains about 
8% bone, and other waste, and about 62% moisture, or 
altogether 70% of non-nutrient material. Cheese therefore 
contains about 63% of nutriment, and steak only 30%. In 
addition, the cheese nutrients consist of a little over one half 
of fat and the rest mainly protein, while the meat nutrients 
are about Yz fat and % protein. From this, it is seen that 
a pound of steak contains about 9% fat and 19% protein, 
while the cheese contains about 34% fat and 26% protein, 
together with some mineral matter, etc. 

(144) Easily Digested. In many households, where 
cheese is eaten freely as a substitute for meat, it is found that 
no ill effects follow its use. The Swiss nation are great 
cheese eaters. Few American mechanics or workman of any 
sort do a harder day's work than a Swiss cheesemaker, whose 
meals of cheese, bread, and vegetables are abundant, satis- 
fying and wholesome in every respect. Large slices of cheese 
eaten at every meal furnish the energy required for hard 
work, and satisfy the appetite fully as well as meat. Experi- 
ments made in this country, in which large numbers of 
students were fed y z pound of cheese with bread and bananas 
daily for three days, showed no indigestion or harmful 
effects in any case. One man who ate cheese as the chief 
source of protein and energy, eating an average of 9.27 



104 Cheese Making. 

ounces daily with bread and fruit for more than two years, 
did a fair amount of muscular work, and kept in good health. 
Cheese is so completely digestible as to leave little waste 
material in the system. Just as a horse or cow requires 
some bulky feed as hay along with the concentrated grain 
feed, so the human animal requires some vegetables, fruits, 
or other bulky food, in addition to the more highly concen- 
trated and digestible meat or cheese. 

(145) Cheese "Too Good." The principal complaint 
made by the housewife about cheese is that it is so goo/d as 
to be all eaten up too soon, thus appearing to cost more than 
meat, but when it is considered that the food value of cheese 
is twice as great per pound as of meat, and that the appetite 
of a normal person commonly indicates what the system 
needs, the importance of a daily supply of cheese on the table 
becomes evident. The flavor, the economy and the digesti- 
bility are all in its favor. 

(146) Human Food Standards. A man who does 
more or less work in lifting, and who walks about a good 
deal, such as a salesman, would be likely to get the food 
which his body needs if supplied daily with such a combina- 
tion of foods as the following: 

134 pounds of bread or other similar food made grains. 
2 ounces or 34 cup of butter, oil, meat drippings, etc. 

1 yi lbs. of fresh fruits, and green vegetables or roots. 

2 ounces of sugar, or y% cup of syrup, honey, etc. 

12 ounces of protein-foods, as cheese. ; . meat, fish, eggs, 
dried beans, or in place of these, about three pints of milk. 

A man at hard work would probably require more food 
than thjis, and a desk worker somewhat less. The ordinary 
full cream cheese contains both the required protein and the 
required fat, as shown above. A pound of cottage cheese 
supplies all the protein needed by a man in a day, but con- 
tains little or no fat. 

A quart of milk contains as much protein as 6 ounces of 
round steak or 43^ eggs, and as much energy as 12 
ounces of steak or 83/ 2 eggs. With milk at 10 cents a quart 
it is cheaper than steak at 23 cents a pound, or eggs at 25 
cents a dozen. Cheese contains butterfat which carries 
vitamin es. 



PART II. 

CHEESE VARIETIES, THEIR CLASSIFICA- 
TION AND MANUFACTURE. 



CHAPTER XX. 
METHOD OF CLASSIFYING CH.EESE VARIETIES. 



(150) Anyone visiting a large city market for the first 
time is surprised at the great number of different kinds, 
flavors, qualities, shapes, and sizes of cheese which are made 
from milk. 




Fig. 20. — Over 30 varieties and styles of cheese are manufactured in Wisconsin. 

The student should take every opportunity to learn to 
recognize different kinds of cheese by name, flavor and ap- 
pearance, to learn where each kind of cheese originated and 
where it is now manufactured. A helpful method, with a 



106 Cheese Making. 

large class of students at the close of the course of study, is 
to purchase as large an assortment of cheese varieties, in 
small samples, as can be obtained with the aid of dealers 
price lists, and to hold a "cheese party." This will afford 
each student sufficient time to inspect, compare, and taste 
the samples in a leisurely manner, to weigh and measure the 
packages, and write notes upon each variety. 

For reading and study, students may obtain from Wash- 
ington, D. C, a copy of Farmers Bulletin 608, Bureau of 
Animal Industry, containing names and brief descriptions 
of nearly 250 varieties from different parts of the world. A 
useful exercise with this bulletin may consist of dividing 
these varieties in groups and classes so far as possible, some- 
what as follows, and finally counting the number of kinds of 
cheese in each group. Other sources may also be consulted. 

(1) Hard cheese (contain less than 40% moisture when 
made from whole milk), Swiss, American, Edam, 
Gouda, etc. 

(2) Soft cheese (contain 45 to 85% moisture and are soft 
to the touch), Limburger, Cottage, Neufchatel, etc. 

(3) Rennet cheese (milk curdled with rennet), many kinds. 

(4) Sour milk cheese (milk curdled by souring), Cottage, 

hand cheese, etc. 

(5) Fresh, when eaten, Cottage, Neufchatel, Coulommier, 

etc. 

(6) Cured for eating, Swiss, American and many others. 

(7) Cured by molds inside, Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola 

(8) Cured by surface molds, Camembert, Brie, etc. 

(9) Whole milk cheese, Swiss, Cheddar, Wisconsin-made 

American, and others. 

(10) Skim milk cheese, Parmesan, Reggiano, cottage, some 

Edam, etc. 

(11) Cream cheese, a few varieties. 

(12) Cow's milk, most kinds. 

(13) Sheep milk, Roquefort, and a few others. 

(14) Goat, or other animals' milk, a few kinds. 

In this way, Limburger, for example, may be classed as 
cow's whole milk, cured, soft, rennet cheese. 

(151) Similarity of Different Cheese. Frequently, 
the same kind of cheese as to method of manufacture, is put 



Method of Classifying Cheese Varieties. 107 

up in a variety of different sized packages, called by different 
names. Thus American Cheddar cheese is called according 
to the size and shape of the package, Young America, Daisy, 
Flat, Long Horn, square, mammoth, Cheddar, midget, etc. 
Swiss cheese is made either as "block," an oblong shape and 
weighing about 20 lbs., or as "drum," a round cartwheel 
shape and weighing 100 to 200 lbs. each. 

It frequently occurs that different names are given to 
cheese made in different localities or by different firms, 
although made by exactly the same process, and alike in 
size and in all essential respects. 

(152) Similarity of Different Cheese Making Proc- 
esses. To give an idea as to the complexity of the cheese 
making process, and of the different steps in the general 
process by which the many varieties of cheese are produced, 
the following list of operations and conditions has been 
prepared in tabular form. In making any specific kind of 
cheese, one part or another of the general process as here 
outlined may be entirely omitted while other parts receive 
special attention in order to produce the desired kind of 
product. 

A. (1) Material Used. Milk of the cow, or sometimes 
the sheep, goat, or rarely of other animals. 

(2) Richness. Whole milk, part skim, full skim milk, or 
rarely enriched milk or cream. 

(3) Ripeness. Sweet, fresh and warm from the animal; 
night's and morning's milk mixed together; ripened to .18%; 
to\25%; to .30% or above. 

(4) Cleanliness. In general milk should be clean and 
free from putrefactive germs; but with ripened milk great 
care is not so necessary as with certain cheese varieties 
made exclusively from fresh, sweet milk, such as Limburger 
or Swiss. Milk is always strained at the factory when 
received. 

B. Inspection. This should never be omitted in order 
that the maker may know what he has to work with. De- 
fective milk is thus stopped at the intake. 

C. Testing in the Vat. With cheese made from ripened 
milk, the ripeness or acidity of mixed milk in the vat is 
usually tested as early as possible. 



108 Cheese Making. 

D. Heating up the Vat. Milk is heated to a suitable 
temperature which may be 72, 86, 90 or 96 degrees, for dif- 
ferent sorts of cheese. 

E. Ripening. The warmed milk, either with or without 
the addition of starter may be held in the vat for a period 
of 1 or more hours to attain the required degree of acidity 
or ripeness, recognized by suitable tests. 

F. Thickening. In most cases thickening is produced by 
the addition of rennet extract, or pepsin, or very rarely by 
certain plant juices, and in a number of cases by souring the 
milk, as with cottage cheese. 

G. Cutting tbe Curd. This is done with a variety of 
tools, such as knives, wire strung harps or in the case of 
skim milk by stirring with a rake. 

H. Stirring the Curd. To prevent the cut or broken 
particles of curd from uniting to form lumps or large masses, 
stirring may be done by hand, by mechanical agitators or 
various tools. 

I. Firming the Curd. The separation of the thickened 
milk into curd and whey begins rapidly (after cutting), 
making the curd firmer as it proceeds. 

J. Heating the Curd. To hasten the separation of whey 
from curd, the vat may be heated, if necessary, to a higher 
temperature, as 96, 100, 110, 120 or 130 degrees or there- 
abouts, or heating may be omitted here. A slight pressure 
on the curd may also aid in whey separation. 

K. Draining the "Whey Off. The curd is freed from the 
separated whey, either by dipping up the curd in a cloth 
bag, through which the whey drains, or by drawing or 
siphoning the whey out of the vat, leaving the curd behind. 
The firmness or acidity of curd, or acidity of whey may be 
tested here. 

L. Matting and filling Curd. If the drained curd is 
allowed to lie quiet in the vat, to mat or unite into a single 
large mass, it is afterward cut up or milled into small pieces 
again. Eoth matting and milling may be omitted and the 
granular process used. 

M. Salting Curd. The addition of salt, and sometimes 
other flavors, by stirring them well with the curd particles 
after either (K) or (L) is sometimes included and with 
some cheese varieties is omitted at this point. 



Method of Classifying Cheese Varieties. 109 

N. Forming Cheese. Curd may be placed in hoops of 
the proper shape and size after (K), or (M) or directly 
after (G) or (F). 

O. Ripening Mould germs are sprinkled on the surface 
or inside of curd in the hoops, in the case of a few cheese 
varieties, to aid in the curing process. 

R. Pressing Cheese. Pressing expels a little remaining 
whey and compacts the curd particles into a solid mass, 
usually of the required shape for market. 

S. Salting Cheese. Some cheese are salted at this point 
by placing in strong salt brine, or by rubbing dry salt on 
the surface. 

T. Curing. Placed in curing rooms of proper humidity 
and temperature, cheese undergo changes in flavor and 
texture necessary for marketing. 

U. Care. While in the curing room, cheese require 
more or less attention and care as washing, cleaning, turning, 
together with salting and paraffining when required, and 
finally packing for sale. Some kinds of cheese require 
wrapping, grating, drying, staining, varnishing, etc. 

(153) Different Ways of Making a Product. In 
reading and studying the following descriptions of cheese- 
making processes it is to be recognized that the methods of 
manufacture are often modified to suit local conditions, or 
according to the customs of cheesemakers in different 
localities, or in making smaller or larger quantities, without 
changing the essential characteristics or market quality of 
the product. Unforeseen emergencies arising in commercial 
factories often make it desirable for the maker to under- 
stand several methods or devices which may be used to 
attain the same result. 

For example, cottage cheese made in small quantities on 
the farm by souring or with rennet may be drained in a 
cloth bag, but when made in a creamery in large quantities 
draining on a flat cloth covered rack is much less laborious, 
while draining the curd on the bottom of the vat saves both 
labor and floor space. Casein is made in large quantities 
from skim milk either by curdling with sulphuric acid, or 
more cheaply by souring until thick and the maker should 
understand the different methods. Many similar examples 
might be mentioned. 



110 Cheese Making 

(154) Small Scale Experiments for Classroom 
Practice. In order that all students in a class may have 
the advantage of doing the work, each with his own hands, 
it will be found helpful and satisfactory in many cases to 
have each student carry on the entire process with 10 or 
20 pounds of whole milk, skim milk, etc., carefully weighed 
in a pail. With such small quantities, heat can be applied 
by placing the pail for a few minutes in a tank of warm 
water and the final products thus obtained should be exactly 
weighed to determine the yield and examined and com- 
pared to determine the quality, and especially to notice the 
effect of intentional or accidental variations of the method. 

For example, with a class in cottage cheese making, 
different students may follow the same methods in all 
respects, except that each may heat the material to a dif- 
ferent final temperature, as 90, 105 or 120 degrees and the 
effect upon the product will be seen by all present. Many 
such experiments can be devised, in which all members of a 
class take part with benefit to all. 

From the records as to materials used and yields obtained, 
students should usually make calculations as to the costs of 
manufacture and the profits to be obtained by each method. 
It is usually advisable to allow or require students to repeat 
the manufacture of a given product, on different days if 
necessary, to ensure that a reasonable degree of familiarity 
and certainty is attained in handling the process and to 
fix the details firmly in the mind. 

The student's notebook should be written up at the 
time of doing the work, giving complete details, so that by 
reading the record after several months have passed the 
student may have no difficulty in making the same product 
with success. 

The making of casein is especially well suited to serve as 
an introduction to the making of cheese, since it affords 
experience in the handling of skim milk in the simplest 
possible way and there is no danger of spoiling the product 
so that it can not be sold, which might easily happen to the 
beginner undertaking to study first a more complicated 
process. 



CHAPTER XXI. 
THE MAKING OF CASEIN. 

(155) Cooked Curd by Sulphuric Acid. Run skim 
milk from the separator into a wooden or tin lined vat (or 
weigh 10 pounds into a pail). Run steam into the milk to 
heat it to 130 degrees, or set the pail in hot water, stirring 
with a thermometer. 

For each 1 ,000 pounds of milk, measure 1 pint of sulphuric 
acid from the carboy and dilute the acid by pouring it slowly, 
stirring, into 3 or 4 pounds of cold water in a wooden pail. 
(Or dilute 5 cc. of the strong acid by pouring into 50 cc. of 
water in a beaker, and after pouring this into a 100 cc. 
cylinder, fill with water to make 100 cc. of solution. Mix 
well.) Hydrochloric acid may be used instead of sulphuric. 

With the milk at 130 degrees, stirring vigorously with a 
wooden rake (in the vat), add the acid slowly, using no 
more than is necessary to produce clear whey, of a yellowish 
green color and not milky in appearance. (Note the volume 
of dilute acid used for 10 pounds milk; figure the volume and 
the weight of strong acid, specific gravity 1.82, required 
and its value at 2 cents a pound, for 100 pounds milk.) 

Drain the whey from the curd, catching any parlicles 
which might escape in a cloth covered strainer. Rinse the 
curd in the vat with several pails of cold water. (In the pail 
rinse the curd with water at 130 degrees.) Grinding curd 
under water is effective in thoroughly freeing it from acid. 

Cover the curd with water (hot water in the pail) and 
run steam into the water to heat the curd to 170 degrees. 
Stir the curd over in the hot water, raising the temperature 
to 180 or H)0 if necessary, until it melts together into a mass, 
like dough. Drain off the water. Turn the curd over and 
work it back and forth on the vat bottom with an iron 
shovel or rake, until well drained and thoroughly matted 
together into one mass. 

Transfer the soft, hot curd to weighed barrels and leave 
to cool. (Leave some of the curd from the pail in a ball 



112 



Cheese Making. 



and roll some of it out into a thin sheet while hot, and leave 
it to cool and harden until the next exercise.) 

Weigh the product, which is called "cooked curd" and 
calculate the yield per 100 pounds of skim milk. It is 
shipped to the near-by buyer in this form. 

(156) Making "Dry Casein" from "Cooked Curd." 
The wet "cooked curd" shipped in barrels from the creamery 
reaches the buyer in a solid lump, the surface of which is 
diy and tough, and free from openings, so that no mould 
can grow into the mass during shipment. If the casein is to 
be shipped a long distance, or stored for any length of time, 
it is dried by the buyer or maker, forming "dry casein" 
which weighs less and keeps indefinitely without becoming 
putrid or mouldy. 

For this purpose the wet casein as received is taken from 
the barrels and run through a power mill, or "green curd 
shredder" which cuts it up fine. The ground curd is spread 
in thin layers on trays 30 or 36 inches square. These trays 
consist of a frame made of wooden strips 1 inch square, to 
which is tacked a square of ^ inch or finer wire netting of 
galvanized iron. The curd is spread about y± to 3^ inch 
thick on the trays, which are then piled 4 or 5 feet high, on 




Fig. 21. — Drying trays on a wheeled truck permit the rapid drying of casein 
in large quantities, in a current of warm air. 



The Making of Casein. 



113 



a square truck having four castors at the corners. The 
truck loads of curd are wheeled into the cool end of a long 
drying kiln or closet, built of matched lumber about 4 feet 
high and 5 feet wide inside to hold two rows of trucks and 
10 or 20 feet long. A slow moving fan draws a stream of 
hot air through a steam radiator and forces it across the 
casein on the trucks. After partial drying the trucks are 
pushed forward toward the warmer end of the closet and 
after 6 to 12 hours when the casein is bone dry they are 
taken out and emptied. 

The student can dry the wet casein made from 10-pound 
lots of milk (155) or (158), on 18-inch square tin or wire 
netting shelves in a small oven with open bottom, set over a 
steam coil, after grinding the casein in a food chopper. 
Any creamery wishing to make either wet or dry casein for 
sale can usually obtain from the buyer full directions for 
making and drying the product and for the drying equip- 
ment. 

(157) Making "Pressed Casein" for Drying Before 
Shipment. Where it is intended to dry the wet casein at 



\J^ 


1 


|| : am \ 








• 

ii 

i 



Fig. 22. — A vertical press is used to remove the loose moisture from casein 
before drying in the kiln. 



114 Cheese Making. 

the creamery before shipment it is made somewhat differ- 
ently in the vat. For this purpose, the final heating to 
170 degrees is omitted, so that the curd remains in a some- 
what loose, granular mass, sticking together only slightly to 
avoid loss of small particles. After washing at about 
130 degrees the curd is drained well and packed in press 
cloths or bags, such as grain sacks. 

The bags of curd are tied shut and packed in layers in a 
vertical press, with 30-inch square wooden slat frames 
between the layers. The screw press is then tightened 
gradually to keep the whey running, until the dripping 
stops. The curd is then emptied out of the bags, and is 
easily ground up and afterward spread on the drying frames 
and dried in the closet as described in (156). The student 
can follow this process with 10 or 20 lbs. of skim milk in 
a pail. 

(158) Making Casein from Sour Skim Milk. While 
skim milk can be made into casein with sulphuric acid as 
soon as it comes from the separator, yet the press of work 
in the creamery often makes it necessary to leave the skim 
milk in the vat until late in the afternoon or next morning 
early, before making the casein. 

During this period it is apt to become sour and thick or 
may be intentionally soured by stirring in some starter as 
soon as in the vat and leaving it to stand covered at about 
100 degrees. For souring by next morning, about 2 per cent 
of starter is usually plenty, but to sour and thicken the same 
afternoon 10 per cent or more of starter may be needed. 
Starter should be smooth and creamy when added and 
should be poured through a metal strainer to break up all 
lumps, so as to distribute the bacteria throughout the milk. 

After the milk is thick it is stirred with a wooden rake 
and while stirring is heated to 130 degrees, after which it is 
washed and finished for shipment, either at 130 degrees 
for immediate drying as in (157) or at 170 degrees for 
shipment as wet casein, as in (155). Students can practice 
this method with 10-pound portions of skim milk set in 
pails to sour. 

(159A) Making Sizeing Out of Dry Casein. Grind 
some dry casein so as to pass through a sieve having 



The Making of Casein. 115 

30 meshes to the inch. Weigh out 18 grams into a wide 
mouthed jar, add 3 grams of powdered borax and add 
65 cc. of hot water. Set the jar in hot water and stir fre- 
quently, until the casein dissolves to form a thick glue. 

This, mixed with resin soap and some minerals, is used 
for glazing paper. Spread some of it evenly in a thin layer 
on the surface of some unglazed paper and leave to dry. 

Casein ground to 60 mesh size, and mixed with a little 
slaked lime and water forms a glue. 

Casein dissolves readily in any alkali and has many com- 
mercial uses. Rennet made casein finds little demand 
in this country. 

(159B) Milk Sugar from Whey. In a few localities 
where 20,0C0 pounds or more of whey are available daily, 
the manufacture of milk sugar has been undertaken. Vacuum 
pans and other special machinery, as filter presses, are used. 
The uses and demand for milk sugar are limited to medi- 
cines, special foods, etc. Its food value is equal to that of 
cane sugar, but its sweetness is much less. 

(160) Buttermilk for Casein Making. Casein made 
from buttermilk is inferior in glue-making qualities, so that 
if more than 10% of buttermilk is mixed with skim milk, the 
resulting casein is likely to sell at a reduced price. The yield 
of dry casein from 100 lbs. of buttermilk is about 2 14 lbs- 
as compared with 3 to 33^ lbs. or more obtained from 100 
pounds of skim milk. Buttermilk, if used, must not be co- 
agulated previous to mixing with the skim milk. Some buy- 
ers refuse buttermilk casein at any price. To make casein 
from raw cream buttermilk, or from sweet-pasteurized cream 
buttermilk, where the cream was soured after pasteurizing, 
the buttermilk is heated in a vat by running steam into the 
vat jacket, stirring the buttermilk a very little at intervals 
until the temperature reaches 130-140 degrees. Then let 
the material stand quiet without stirring for about an hour, 
during which time the curd separates, and rises to the top 
of the whey in a compact layer, or may settle to the bottom. 
In either case, after an hour, the whey can be drawn off quite 
completely leaving the curd in the vat, by carefully opening 
the gate part way at first, so as not to disturb the curd by 
the whey currents. The curd rack and cloth below the gate 



116 



Cheese Making. 



catch any curd which escapes, and the whey, flowing out, 
passes through the cloth into the drain. Finally, the curd 
in the vat runs or is scooped out upon the cloth, and left to 
drain for about 24 hours. It is not possible to get butter- 
milk curd to unite into a plastic doughy mass, as does skim 
milk curd at 170 degrees, but the granular buttermilk curd 
after draining fully is packed into barrels for shipment, or 
may be dried at once, in the drying closet. 




Fig. 23. — The flat draining rack with bottom of wire netting can be made 
large or small, as required, but is always about one, foot deep, and is covered 
with cheese cloth for draining cottage cheese and similar materials. 



(161) Making Casein From Sour Pasteurized 
Cream Buttermilk. With this kind of buttermilk it is 
almost impossible to get a curd which can be collected on a 
cloth, or drained in a reasonable time, as the curd obtained 
by heating is very fine grained, like chalk dust. If a mixture 
of 1 part skim milk and 4 parts or less of this buttermilk is 
heated to 130 degrees, the skim milk curd collects and en- 
closes the buttermilk curd, and the mass can be caught and 
drained on a cloth without loss. A mixture containing a 
larger proportion of skim milk gives a curd which resembles 
yet more closely a skim milk curd in the ease of collecting and 
draining on cloth. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



COTTAGE CHEESE. 



(162) Cottage Cheese From Sour Skim Milk. The 

ordinary farm method of making cottage cheese is too well 
known to need description here. For use in a busy cream- 
ery, the method must be modified so as to permit the cheese 
to be made with the least labor and time, at a time of day 
convenient for the operator, and so as to get the vat empty 
in time to receive the next day's milk. 

In the factory, skim milk is run from the separator into a 
vat or any receptacle which can be heated. A regular cheese 
vat is preferable, and a tall, cylindrical strainer to fit inside 
the vat next to the outlet should be purchased with the vat. 

Although not so convenient, it is possible to use a vat 
without a jacket, heating the curdled milk by adding hot 
water, while stirring with a wooden rake. The older method 
of souring skim milk in milk cans, heating each can by plac- 
ing it in a tub of hot water, is yet more inconvenient where a 
large quantity is handled. 

For students' exercises, 10 pound portions of skim milk 
may be weighed into tin pails, and left to sour. 

Starter is added as described in (158), and (168). 

(163) Finishing the Cheese. When the milk is thick and 
the maker is ready, the curd may be cut into cubes with 
ordinary cheesemakers' curd knives. Many makers prefer 
instead to use a wooden rake, which is moved slowly back 
and forth through the curd to break it into rather coarse 
flakes, but not beat it to a smooth pulp or into fine grains. 
(Students may stir curd in a pail with a thermometer, as the 
hand or a dipper will break it up too fine.) 

While stirring (after cutting with knives, if used) the 
steam is turned into the jacket, and the material heated to 
about 105 degrees, or if preferred (168) using higher tem- 
peratures. When at this temperature the curd is stirred 



118 Cheese Making. 

occasionally until judged to be firm enough for the next step. 
During the heating, and stirring, the whey comes out of the 
curd, which shrinks and becomes firmer. 

(164) Tests for a Well Firmed Curd. The end of this 
part of the process is reached when the curd, if not gassy so 
as to float, will settle down two-thirds of the way toward the 
bottom, under the surface of the whey. 

A better way to judge the firmness is to take up a handful 
of curd without squeezing it, and notice whether the small 
pieces stick together in a jelly like mass, in which case it is 
too soft. When firm enough, the curd in the hand remains 
open and porous, allowing the whey to run out freely, so as 
to drain fully in a short time. The softer and more mushy a 
curd is when the whey is drawn, the more the curd will col- 
lect around the strainer and stop it up, and the more time 
and labor is required to drain and finish it. A little expe- 
rience will demonstrate this. 

A firm curd will stick to the hand held vertically, but 
soft curd will fall off at once. Use about half a teaspoonful 
of curd for this test. 

(165) Draining the Whey From the Curd. The 
older method of dipping curds into bags to drain is too slow 
for factory use. If there is plenty of floor space, a flat drain- 
ing rack may be used, as illustrated in (160), and the curd is 
drained and salted in the rack and then packed in tubs. 

A better way, described in a Wisconsin bulletin, is to 
drain the curd and salt it in the vat in which it is made, thus 
saving floor space which a draining rack would require, and 
also shortening the time and labor required. This method 
is described below. 

With a rake, the curd is gently pushed away from the 
gate end of the vat. The tall, cylindrical strainer is then put 
into the vat, with the outlet fitting into gate. An ordinary 
metal strainer below the gate will catch any curd that 
escapes. Next allow the vat to stand quiet for a few minutes, 
to settle the curd fully. In this way, a deep layer of clear 
whey is obtained, which will run rapidly through the strainer 
when the gate is opened. If the curd is stirred or disturbed 
by too rapid whey currents, it will clog the strainer, and de- 
lay the work. The last whey will run more rapidly, if a 



Cottage Cheese. 



119 



gutter is made in the curd with the rake, down the middle 
of the vat, as in (167). 




pj„ 24 Draining in the vat. A curd heated to about 130 degrees after cut- 
ting cooled thoroughly with cold water, and drained in the vat, can be salted in 
one-half hour to one hour after cutting the curd. 

(166) Cooling the Curd is Advantageous. As soon 
as the whey has run out as completely as is convenient, so 
that the curd is wholly or partly uncovered, the gate is 
closed, and cold well water is run into the vat quickly, in 
sufficient quantity to cover the curd and to reduce the tem- 
perature of the mixture to 70 degrees, or lower. It is best 
to have the water ready in cans, before it is needed. The 
water should be added very promptly, even while there is 
yet some whey in the vat if the last whey runs out slowly. 
Stir up the curd in the water to break up any lumps, and cool 
all parts of it. Washing a curd once with cold water in this 
way does not injure its flavor. Cooling the curd thus has 
two advantages, (1) the curd is not in danger of becoming 
tough and rubbery or sandy as may easily happen if drained 



120 Cheese Making. 

while warm, and (2) the cooled curd remains open and porous 
and drains more rapidly, so as to be finished more quickly. 

Cottage cheese, when well made and cooled, should not 
give up loose whey, after packing, but should be dry enough 
to permit addition of cream, etc., by the consumer, if de- 
sired, at the table. 

(167) Draining, Salting, and Packing the Cheese. 
The curd is allowed to settle again, and the water is drawn 
off through the strainer, When most of the water is out, a 
ditch is made down the middle of the vat with the wooden 
rake, as shown in the figure. Push the curd a little towards 
each side of vat and away from the strainer. This will allow 
the remaining water to drain away more rapidly. The curd 
is left on the bottom of the vat for a short time to finish 
draining until dry enough to suit the trade. The use of cold 
water in this way makes the final draining of the curd more 
rapid than if no water was used. The cooling also avoids 
danger of getting the curd tough and rubbery, which is likely 
to occur when the curd is drained and left at a high tempera- 
ture. Probably the early cooling and the washing out of the 
whey also improve the keeping quality of the cheese. 

When satisfactorily drained and not before, the curd is 
salted, adding 1 y± to 1^ lbs. of salt to 100 lbs. of curd, and 
stirring it in evenly. All of this salt should remain in the 
cheese, which is now ready to pack. About 16 lbs. of cheese 
are obtained from 100 lbs. of skim milk. 

From 2 }/2 to 5% of finely ground canned pimento may 
be stirred into the cheese after salting, but this is done only 
on special orders. 

The cheese can be packed in 60-lb. tubs, or in tin cans for 
shipment, and in moisture proof single service containers for 
the retail trade, or more cheaply in thin wooden plates or 
common paper ice cream or oyster pails, if the retailer has 
time to weigh it out at the counter. 

The product should be kept cold, until it reaches the 
consumer. During long shipment in warm weather, it may 
spoil in flavor. Some buyers keep it for several months, 
frozen solid in cold storage, and mix in a little fresh cheese 
to imrpove the flavor when sold. 



Cottage Cheese. 121 

(168) The Effect of Varying Temperatures. The 

temperature and amount of starter used in souring milk may 
be varied by the maker to suit the case. It is desirable to 
have the milk sour and thick only a short time before it is 
used for cheesemaking, as with very old, sour material, a 
disagreeable, rank flavor in the curd is likely to result. With 
very high acidity, the curd breaks into a slow draining, fine 
grained mass during the cutting or stirring, and tends to 
produce a cheese of tough, sandy consistency. 

Curd ripened at 72 degrees, like starter, has a more 
creamy consistency, and tends to break up fine during the 
stirring. 

The effect of heating the vat finally to a higher tempera- 
ture than 105 degrees (163) is to hasten the firming process, 
and quicker work in cooling with water then becomes neces- 
sary to avoid a tough, sandy product. 

(169) Pasteurization of Skim Milk For Cottage 
Cheese. Skim milk for cheesemakjng should be pasteurized 
at 145 degrees for 30 minutes, because it is more sanitary. 
Where whole milk is pasteurized before separating, both the 
butter and the cheese are benefited. Most cottage cheese is 
made from raw skim milk, as many creameries have no means 
for pasteurizing. The method of manufacture with milk so 
pasteurized is the same as with raw milk, although more 
starter may be required for ripening the milk. 

(170) Making Very Soft Cottage Cheese — Bakers' 
Cheese. Cottage cheese sold to bakers should be much 
softer than when made for table use. For this purpose, the 
milk is left to sour at such a temperature that it will cool 
down to about 75 degrees, After cutting, and stirring at this 
temperature, the curd may be dipped from the vat to a flat, 
cloth covered, draining rack, and left to drain half a day or 
over night. While yet quite soft, like quaking mortar, it 
is packed in cans without salt, and shipped to the buyer. 
The yield is about 20 lbs. cheese per 100 lbs. skim milk. 

See also (184). 

(171) Pasteurization of Cottage Cheese During 
Manufacture. It is possible to modify the method, keep- 
ing the curd in large flakes by stirring very little, and heating 
slowly up to 145 degrees for 20 minutes, and finally drawing 



122 Cheese Making. 

the whey and cooling the curd with cold water before salting, 
and in this way to give the cheese a practical pasteurization 
during the making. This may consume more time, but there 
is no chance of contaminating the product through use of a 
poor starter added to the skim milk, which has been previous- 
ly pasteurized. If the curd is stirred too much, it will break 
up into small pieces, and become tough or sandy. 

(172) Cottage Cheese from Buttermilk — Butter- 
milk Cheese. Buttermilk from old, gathered cream is 
likely to yield curd having a disagreeable, old flavor, in com- 
parison with cheese made from freshly soured skim milk. 
On this account, probably, cheese from skim milk is preferred 
in some markets, since it is more likely to be uniformly good 
in flavor. 

If a skim milk curd is heated too long, or to too high a 
temperature in the whey, the cheese is sure to become tough, 
rubbery, or sandy, and unattractive for table use. But 
curd from buttermilk is different, in that it may be heated 
to 140, or 160, or even higher for an hour or more, without 
the slightest danger of obtaining a tough or sandy curd. 

By no known method is it possible to start with skim 
milk, and get from it a curd which can be heated to 140- 
160 degrees for an hour without becoming sandy, while all 
curds made from buttermilk can be so heated and yet 
yield a typical "buttermilk curd," which is very smooth and 
fine grained, and can be instantly rubbed out to a smooth 
paste with a little water in the hand. Starting with butter- 
milk it is impossible to make by any known means a curd 
which is tough or sandy, or which will not quickly absorb 
water applied to it. 

The difference between skim milk and buttermilk 
originates in the centrifugal cream separator where appar- 
ently the cream proteins and the skim milk proteins are 
separated from each other. Further investigation must 
explain this difference more fully. 

The differences mentioned between skim milk and 
buttermilk curds make it necessary to use different methods 
for making cheese from these two materials, but it has been 
found that buttermilk cheese can be sold and eaten with 
equal relish in place of cottage cheese. In several large 



Cottage Cheese. 123 

towns and cities, buttermilk cheese has found ready sale, 
but in the largest cities, the demand for buttermilk for drink- 
ing purposes makes it impossible to supply buttermilk 
cheese except from outside creameries by shipment. 

The method of making cheese from raw cream butter- 
milk is as described in (160), but after the curd has drained 
on the rack for about half a day it is dry enough for table 
use and should be salted with 1}4-\ X A% of salt, well stirred 
in and packed for sale. Water stirred in to moisten the 
salted curd, if too dry, is quickly absorbed. 

When sour cream is pasteurized the temperature and the 
high acidity cause the casein in the cream to curdle in very 
fine grains. These grains pass through the churn with the 
buttermilk, but when such buttermilk is heated to make 
cheese the curd separates as a slimy mass like chalk and 
water, but can not be drained rapidly, or made into a satis- 
factory product for table use. The curd from such butter- 
milk can be recovered in good condition, if to the cold 
buttermilk there is added (1) a lye solution evenly stirred 
in until the mixture is alkaline to phenolphthalein, and 
(2) hydrochloric, acid evenly stirred in to neutralize the lye, 
in such quantity as required until a test portion of the well 
stirred mixture, on heating to 140 degrees, wheys off clear 
and gives a curd in all respects like a raw cream buttermilk 
curd. The lye dissolves the fine grains of curd formed in 
the pasteurizer and the acid precipitates the curd again .at 
a moderately low temperature, as occurs in handling raw 
buttermilk. Sweet pasteurized cream buttermilk must be 
ripened with starter until it will curdle at 130 degrees, like 
raw cream buttermilk. 

Wisconsin bulletin 239 describes buttermilk cheese. 

(173) Other Products Made from Cottage Cheese. 
A surplus of cottage cheese, if not salted, can always be 
dried further and sold as casein. From skim milk cottage 
cheese are made a number of other kinds of cheese, as hand 
cheese, sap sago (krauterkase or schabziger), gammelost, 
cooked cheese (kochkase), appetitost, and many others con- 
taining a variety of herbs, spices, and other flavoring ma- 
terials, some of which are occasionally seen in this country, 
and a few of which are described below. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

CURED CHEESE MADE FROM SOUR MILK CURD. 

Cottage cheese is made as described above and used for 
immediate consumption while fresh, but the use of sour 
milk curd for making cured cheese has been widespread in 
Europe and is practiced to a slight extent in America. 

The best known, cured, sour milk cheese in this country 
are hand cheese, sap sago (krauterkase or schabziger), 
cooked cheese (kochkase), -gammelost, etc. 

(174) Hand Cheese Manufacture. This cheese, so- 
called because originally moulded into balls or cakes by 
hand, is made in Europe in a variety of shapes and small 
sizes and flavored with a great variety of herbs, as caraway, 
thyme, majoram, hops, pimento, mace, cayenne and often 
with beer, wine, etc. In different localities, different names, 
often geographical, are applied to what is practically the 
same product in all essential qualities, differing only in the 
kind of flavoring and in the proportion of salt used, which 
is from 3 to 5% of the weight of the curd. Descriptions are 
given by Stohmann, p. 950; in Milchzeitung, 1891, pp. 142, 
189, 273; 1887, p. 981; 1889, 175; 1894, p. 367; Polytechnic 
Journal, vol. 263, p. 569; Fleischmann, Lehrbuch der Milch- 
wirtschaft, p. 441, 5th ed. 

Skim milk from the separator is mixed in a tin vat with 
some buttermilk and left at about 90 degrees to stand quiet 
over night, during which time it becomes thick and cools 
somewhat. Stir gently next morning so that the floating 
curd shall not settle and be overheated on the bottom, 
during 1-1 M> hours while heating up to 113-122° F. Allow 
it to stand 2 hours in the kettle undisturbed and then draw- 
off the whey with a siphon and strainer. Transfer the curd 
to a draining rack until completely cooled so that it is no 
longer sticky. The curd is now ready to mill. All dried, 
tough grains formed on the sides of the vat must be kept 
out. Curd is ground twice, if necessary, to make it very 
fine grained. 



Experiments on Curding Temperatures. 125 

The two smooth rolls of the mill move at unequal rates. 
They are of wood, iron or granite and are adjustable as to 
distance for the first and second milling of curd. A hopper 
delivers the curd just between the rolls and a conveyor 
below takes the curd to the press. 

During the milling the necessary salt, etc., is mixed in, 
using in summer 43^-5 pounds, and in winter 4 pounds of 
salt, and l j h to Yi pound of caraway seed, etc., to 100 pounds 
curd. The curd is then put in a screw press for 24 hours to 
remove whey, but should yet be moist enough to remain 
coherent when squeezed in the hand, and not fall aparl 
The press is lined with a coarse cloth and has holes in the 
sides for escape of whey. 

The pressed curd is formed by hand or machine into 
cakes. The simple, two-part hinged mold is filled with a 
ball of curd, pressed together, and the cake of curd remain- 
ing in it is set on a board to dry. Or, a round zinc mold of 
the same diameter and height as the cheese, is filled with 
curd, set on a board and the ring lifted off, leaving the 
cheese on the board to dry. This gives the round flat hand- 
kase. For the long round kummelkase, the curd is rolled on 
a board under the hand, and laid in round grooves in a 
board and turned frequently. The rectangular Berlin 
kuhkase is packed into a large form of the right depth and 
afterward cut into strips of the required length and width, 
when it has dried somewhat. 

After forming, the cheese is dried. In warm seasons this 
is done in the open air or in two warmed rooms in winter. 
In the open air use simple, open sheds, roofed with roofing 
paper, built across the wind. The width is not greater than 
the length of the boards on which the cheese rest. The 
height may be 6 to 8 feet and the length 30 feet if necessary. 
The shed consists, besides the roof, only of posts with hori- 
zontal strips placed 4 to 5 inches apart, down to 2 feet 
above the ground to carry the cheese boards. The strips 
also have groo\es into which sliding boards can be put when 
necessary as protection against the weather and during the 
night. 

During the cold weather two rooms are needed which 
are provided with ventilating flues and well heated. The 



126 Cheese Making. 

ventilation must be excellent to remove moisture rapidly to 
keep cheese from remaining sticky and becoming moldy. 
In the drying room similar shelving is placed as in the 
sheds, but not against the walls, to secure free movement 
of air. 

The formed cheese remain 6-12 hours in the forming 
room at 55-60° F., in winter to begin drying, then 6-12 hours 
in a room at 86-90° F., and then at 108-110° F., with one or 
two turnings, until on breaking they appear brittle, but not 
so dry as to be hard, glassy or nearly transparent, the time 
depending on the dryness of the material used and the 
size of the cheese. 

The dried cheese are then taken to the curing rooms 
kept at 55-60° F. As soon as they begin to show a moist 
surface with a brownish color they should be washed to 
maintain a golden yellow color and secure the best quality. 
Place in water for 10-15 minutes and stir well with the 
hand or put the cheese through a brushing machine, then 
return them to the curing room or to a moderately warmed 
drying room. Small cheese may be packed in cases of 
10 or 20 pounds to ripen, after ripening to a depth of a 
few millimeters, but larger cheese should be kept on the 
shelf longer. 

In the curing room, either wet or dry molds may grow. 
Wet mold grows on the slime and is easily removed by 
rubbing when packing, but dry mold attacks the surface 
deeply, causing loss of weight in cleaning. If washing does 
not prevent this, fumigate the room several days by burning 
several pounds of sulphur, then whitewash the walls and 
scrub the woodwork and cheese boards with hot water. In 
packing, handle cheese carefully to avoid breaking. 

One hundred pounds of skim milk and buttermilk give 
about 11 pounds of pressed fresh curd and 5 to 8.5 pounds of 
fully ripened cheese. The small hand cheese lose 30% in 
weight in ripening and 35-50 % when fully ripened. 

(175A) Sap Sago Cheese from Sour Skim Milk Curd. 
This cheese, called in Europe schabziger or green krauter- 
kase, has been made for 4 centuries in canton Glarus in 
Switzerland and is imported to America in cone shaped 
pieces about 4 inches high, 3 inches in diameter at the 



Experiments on Curding Temperatures. 127 

bottom and 2 inches at the top. The color is gray-green, 
the texture is compact and hard and the odor aromatic. 
Small quantities have been made here with good success. 
When eaten, it is grated and spread on buttered bread. 

The skim milk should not be sour enough to curdle on 
boiling, as such curd will be too dry and hard for this cheese. 
The skim milk is heated to boiling in a copper bottomed 
kettle or pail to avoid burning. Cold buttermilk is added 
to raise the acidity to about .20%, but in small quantities at 
a time to avoid curdling and the kettle is heated again. A 
portion of very sour whey is spread with a wide scoop over 
the surface of the milk, the kettle is drawn from the fire and 
left quiet. Soon the surface layer thickens and this curd is 
taken off with the scoop. The remaining liquid is stirred 
and enough sour whey added to thicken it all and separate 
clear whey. Too much sour whey used here makes the curd 
hard and crumbly and gives the cheese a sour taste, which 
is its greatest fault. Too little sour whey leaves the whey 
milky and the curd is soft and sticky and retains too much 
whey which cannot be easily pressed out. 

The whey is drawn and the curd is laid in wooden troughs 
in a thin layer to drain and cool. The cool curd is placed in 
wooden forms having draining holes in bottom and sides, 
covered with a board and pressed moderately by adding 
weights. It is left thus for 3 to 6 weeks protected from flies 
to ferment, best at 60-65 degrees F. If kept too cold, or 
pressed too hard, it remains too tough, becomes bluish in 
color and defective in flavor. If kept too warm or pressed 
too lightly, it ferments too strongly and liquefies. Well 
made curd will keep longer than 6 weeks if necessary. This 
"fermented white curd" is sold in 150-lb. sacks to the 
cheesemakers. Eleven to twelve pounds of curd are obtained 
from 100 lbs. of whole milk, besides the butter churned. 

The maker runs the curd several times through the curd 
mill to a smooth paste, with 4-5 lbs. salt and 2.5 lbs. dried 
clover leaves for each 100 lbs. curd, until the mass is fully 
uniform. A wooden mold is lined with cloth and the curd 
is packed in tightly and the maker's stamp imprinted on the 
bottom. The cheese is then tipped out of the mold and 
dried in a room protected from extremes of temperature 



128 Cheese Making. 

which cause cracking and from direct sunlight which bleach- 
es the color, but with good ventilation for 2 to 6 months 
before it is packed for shipment. The cheese is grated f ne 
and spread on rye bread and butter. 

Six or seven pounds of ripened cheese are obtained, 
besides butter, from 100 lbs. of milk. One hundred pounds 
of fermented curd yields 66 lbs. of dry cheese. The clover 
Melilotus (Trigonella) coerulea, is grown for the purpose 
and dried, before it blossoms or goes to seed, in a cool shady, 
place for 2 or 3 weeks, after which it is brought for short 
periods of time into the direct sunlight on a cloth or may be 
dried a short time in a steam oven. When dried enough, it 
is rubbed fine, sifted free from stems and is ready for use as 
a very fine green powder. 

(175B) Cooked Cheese from Sour Milk Curd. 
Cottage cheese curd, freed from whey, is rubbed fine, flavored 
with salt, caraway and a little bicarbonate of soda and 
placed in a jar and left in a warm place for 3-5 days at 
60° F. It is then heated carefully in a greased pan over the 
fire, adding milk if necessary, until melted to a syrupy mass. 
It is poured into small containers to cool until it solidifies, 
and is then ready to be sold and eaten at once, as it does not 
keep long before becoming moldy. 

(175C) Gammelost. This Norwegian cheese is made 
from pressed sour skim milk curd, dipped for % to 1 hour 
in boiling hot whey, then pressed in a form, taken from the 
form, left in a warm place and turned daily. After a few 
weeks it is packed in moist straw, in j ars. After 2 or 3 months 
it is ready to eat. It is imported in tin cans, and has a golden 
brown color, and a strong flavor. 

(175D) Pultost. Another Norwegian cheese called pul- 
tost or knaost, is made from pressed and finely ground cot- 
tage cheese, which is then left at a warm temperature to 
ferment. After mixing with caraway and salt, the mass is 
rubbed fine again, and packed in wooden containers, and 
either eaten fresh, or after one or two months. 

(176) The Curdling Temperature of Milk. While 
fresh milk can be heated to boiling without curdling, milk 
ripened to .3% acidity or more will curdle at temperatures 



Experiments on Curding Temperatures. 129 

below boiling, and at .5% acidity or more will curdle at 
room temperatures. 

Not only the proportion of acid in milk, but also the pro- 
portion of almost any other substance added to milk affects 
more or less the temperature at which it will curdle. 

The temperature at which milk curdles can be observed 
without difficulty by placing a thermometer and 1 or2cc. 
of the milk (enough to cover a thermometer bulb) in a test 
tube, inserting and holding the tube in a 200 cc. beaker half 
full of water, which is slowly heated over a bunsen burner. 
By moving the test tube most of the time, the water is well 
stirred, and the instant that visible coagulation occurs in the 
milk, the temperature can be read on the thermometer. 
Duplicate tests on the same milk usually agree within two 
degrees, Fahrenheit. 

(a) With a pail full of sweet skim milk, at about 40 or 50 
degrees, Fahrenheit, 1 pint portions can be quickly brought 
to different higher acidities by shaking the milk while run- 
ning in from a burette, 1, 2, or 3 cc. of N /l strength hydro- 
chloric acid. If the milk is cold and well shaken, curdling 
should not occur during the addition of the acid. 

(b) Each lot of acidulated milk may then be tested with 
the acidimeter for its acidity, and finally tested as described 
above to determine the temperature at which it will curdle. 

(c) Different pint portions of skim milk can be brought 
to different degrees of ripeness by holding them for a few 
hours at warm temperatures, from 85 to 105 degrees, and the 
milk at different acidities may be tested for its coagulation 
temperature. 

(d) If instead of hydrochloric acid in (a) there be used 
a N/1 solution of lactic, or acetic, or phosphoric acid, quite 
a different set of coagulation temperatures will be observed. 

(e) Other substances beside acids strongly affect the 
coagulation temperature. Starting with a lot of milk which 
because of ripening, or the addition of an acid, will curdle at 
about 150 to 170 degrees, and adding 1, 3, or 5% of calcium 
chloride, of common salt, or almost any other soluble salt, 
it is found that the curdling temperature is raised or lowered 
many degrees. See Wis. Expt. Sta., Ann. Rept. for 1907, 
page 176ff. 



130 Cheese Making. 

(177) Rennet Action Lowers the Coagulation Tem- 
perature. The experiments in (176) show that in any 
sample of sour milk, the casein will curdle, that is, let go of 
the other constituents, at a definite temperature, which was 
there called the coagulation temperature. 

When rennet extract is added to milk, a change begins 
at once in the casein itself, changing it into another sub- 
stance "paracasein." Paracasein in milk has a lower coagu- 
lation temperature than casein, so that as the rennet action 
progresses, in a given sample of milk, the temperature at 
which the milk will curdle is lowered. When the coagulation 
temperature of the milk finally becomes as low as the temper- 
ature of the room, the entire mass of milk curdles. 

(a) The progressive lowering of the coagulation temper- 
ature of milk, as rennet action proceeds, can be shown as 
follows : To a gallon of milk in a pail, at about 80 degrees, 
add enough rennet extract to cause the first visible thicken- 
ing in about 20 or 25 minutes. Note exactly the time when 
rennet was added, and keep the milk at a uniform temper- 
ature. After about 4^ minutes measure out a pint of this 
milk into a quart bottle, and add to the milk from a pipette 
10 cc. of N /l caustic soda, mixing it in quickly and thorough- 
ly. The alkali used should be sufficient in quantity to make 
the milk alkaline to. phenolphthalein, and thus instantly 
destroy the rennet present, and stop its action on the milk. 

At five minute intervals, take out other equal portions 
of the milk from the pail, and treat exactly in the same way 
with alkali. 

Finally, set all of these bottles in ice water, so as to cool 
the milk down to about 40-50 degrees, and then add to each 
while shaking, exactly the same volume of N/1 hydrochloric 
acid as was used of the alkali. The acid and alkali neutralize 
each other, forming some common salt. After all of the 
bottles have been thus treated, the milk in each is tested 
for its coagulation temperature, which will be found to be 
lower in that milk on which the rennet acted longest. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

FRESH, SOFT RENNET CHEESE. 

(178) Junket. For these unacquainted with this dish, 
an exercise in the preparation of junket is interesting and 
instructive, as an example of the simplest possible form of the 
process of making cheese with rennet. 

Fresh milk is sweetened, and flavored with vanilla, arti- 
ficial peach flavor, or any other preferred flavoring, in about 
the following proportions: 

3 quarts of sweet milk 

1 pound of sugar 

Yi ounce of vanilla extract 

This mixture is heated to about 90-95 degrees, and 
junket tablet solution is added, or rennet extract at the rate 
of 2 cc. extract for the quantity given above. Immediately 
after stirring in the coagulant, pour the milk quickly into 
cups, and allow to stand undisturbed until well thickened. 
Carry the tray of cups to the refrigerator, and leave for half 
an hour or more, until the material is well chilled, when the 
junket is ready to be eaten. 

Junket tablets may be purchased at almost any grocery 
or drug store in two sizes for different quantities of milk. 
The tablet is dissolved in a little water and used instead of 
rennet extract. The tablets keep well for a long time in the 
dry form and are preferable to extract for occasional use in 
the household. 

(179) The Neufchatel Process. Neufchatel cheese is 
commonly sold in small 10-cent packages, wrapped in tin 
foil under a variety of names. It is made from either whole 
milk or skim milk and sometimes from cream or milk to 
which some cream has been added. It is often called cream 
cheese. 

It was formerly made in France from milk or cream 
thickened by souring, and then wrapped in a cloth, which 
was hung up to drain. The cloth had to be frequently 



132 Cheese Making. 

changed or at least the contents must be stirred and scraped 
down before the draining was complete. This process has 
been improved in America, so as greatly to lessen the labor 
required and systematize the manufacture. 

An early form of the process in this country consisted in 
thickening sweet milk with rennet extract in milk cans and 
pouring the curd thus obtained into a yard square of cloth 
stretched over an oblong wooden frame and fastened to the 
four corner posts by slipping an iron ring over the cloth at 
the top of each post. This process required labor to handle 
and wash a great many cans and wooden frames and has 
been generally abandoned. 

The modern process for making Neufchatel cheese begins 
by thickening the milk in a vat and drawing the curd 
through the gate into muslin bags. After draining the 
whey out, with occasional shaking of the bags, they are 
put in a press for a short time. When sufficiently dry the 
curd is emptied into a trough, where it is mixed with salt 
and other flavoring material, if used, and is then run through 
a machine, moulding it into cakes, which are wrapped by 
hand in paper and tin foil and packed in flat wooden boxes 
for sale. The cheese is easy to make but like other fancy 
products, requires much advertising to secure the ready sale 
of a large quantity before it has time to spoil. The retailer 
should receive fresh stock at least twice a month or oftener, 
and any spoiled, unsold stock is usually replaced by the 
manufacturer. 

(180) Cream Cheese or Whole Milk Neufchatel. 
Made from whole milk or with milk enriched to contain 
5 or 6 per cent fat, the product is usually labeled "cream 
cheese," and put up in 3- or G-ounce packages, of square or 
oblong form. 

The whole milk, with or without added cream, is run 
into a vat and heated to about 72 degrees. Sometimes a 
little starter is also added, if found necessary, and about 
1 to 2 ounces of rennet extract per 1,000 lbs. of milk is then 
thoroughly mixed in. The vat is left undisturbed until the 
next morning. With whole milk, this quantity of rennet is 
necessary to secure thickening before too much cream has 
risen. During the night, the milk ripens slightly and 



Fresh, Soft Rennet Cheese, 133 

thickens. The next morning the curd is cut in the usual 
way with American curd knives, into cubes, but no heat is 
applied. Immediately after cutting, a test of the whey 
should show at least .30% acidity. If the milk had not 
ripened, the whey would test only .12 or .15% and the curd 
from such sweet milk tends strongly to retain whey, so that 
it cannot be readily drained, or pressed dry enough for 
salting. 

If the factory milk supply does not ripen at 72 degrees, 
without starter, the milk may be set at 75 or 77 degrees and 
about 1 /10 of 1% of starter may be added before the rennet 
is stirred in. In cold weather the milk may be set warmer 
so as to thicken and cool down about 70-72 over night. 

(181) Draining the Curd in Bags. After cutting 
the curd, a muslin bag, about thirty inches long and eigh- 
teen or twenty inches wide, made of pillow case tubing, is 
put under the gate and filled nearly full of curd. The neck 
of the bag is then tied shut and the bag is hung up by the 
tie string on a hook to drain for 24 hours. It may be neces- 
sary to shake each bag vigorously once in two or three hours 
to mix the contents, as the curd next the cloth drains dry 
quickest and may form a layer which delays the draining of 
the curd in the center. 

(182) Cooling the Curd. The curd is cooled when 
partly drained in order to reduce the loss of fat in subse- 
quent pressing and is kept cold until packed and shipped, 
in order to preserve the good flavor as long as possible. 

The draining hooks may be attached permanently over- 
head in the make room, and in this case the bags of partly 
drained curd are taken clown and loosely packed with 
cracked ice in a draining trough and left over night. 

If the draining hooks are attached to a movable frame 
which can be wheeled about on castors, the frame carrying 
the bags on the hooks is pushed into the refrigerator where 
it is left to drain over night. 

It is possible to omit this cooling process entirely, if the 
curd is to be eaten soon without shipment to a distance. 

(183) Pressing the Curd, Salting and Packing. 
The next morning the bags of curd are shaken so as to 
collect the contents at the bottom, and the bag above the 



134 Cheese Making. 

curd is twisted up to prevent loss of curd while pressing. 
The bags are placed in a vertical press in layers, alternating 
with wooden slat frames, about 30 inches square, which 
keep the pile from falling over. The screw press is tightened 
so as to keep the whey running for about 20 minutes or 
until the curd is dry enough. The bags are then turned 
inside out, emptying the curd into a tin trough, 1 foot deep 
and 2 by 2 feet or larger and set like a table on legs with 
castors, so as to be wheeled about. To make the curd per- 
fectly smooth, it is sometimes run through a power food 
chopper. The curd is mixed in the trough and salt at the 
rate of 1 y± to 1 Yi lbs. per 100 lbs. of curd is stirred in evenly. 
Two and one-half to 5% of pimento may also be added 
or other flavoring matter, as chopped olives, nuts or a 
mixture of these. 

The curd is then put into the hopper of a soft cheese 
packing machine, which, by the action of a conical screw, 
forces the curd through a nozzle of the desired shape, and 
delivers the cheese in cakes ready for wrapping. The tin 
foil has a lining of thin parchment paper. The cakes of 
cheese are wrapped by hand and packed in wooden flats 
holding one or two dozen. 

The cheese is also packed and sold in 3-ounce or larger jars 
of glass, either white or transparent and sometimes is put up 
in 1-or 5-pound cartons for hotel use, or for cutting on the 
retail counter. 

(184) Neufchatel Cheese from Skim Milk. The 
process with skim milk is the same as described above for 
whole milk, excepting that as the curd contains no fat which 
might be lost by rough handling, the curd is not hung on 
hooks but the bags are piled on a wooden slat draining rack 
placed on the floor. The bags are repiled about once an 
hour and at times may drain so rapidly that they can be 
pressed the same day. 

The pressing, salting and packing is done as described 
above, excepting that the shape of the 3-ounce cheese is not 
oblong, but cylindrical, when made from skim milk. When 
packed in tubs, it is often called baker's cheese (170). 

(185) Neufchatel Cheese in Loaves. Skim milk 
Neufchatel is also put up in 5- or 10-pound loaves, wrapped 



Fresh, Soft Rennet Cheese. 135 

in parchment paper, ready to be cut with a string on the 
retail counter into pound slices or larger, as called for by 
the consumer. By this method the expense of hand wrapping 
and tin foil wrappers is avoided and the product can be sold 
at a lower price with profit. 

For this purpose, the skim milk in large vats is heated to 
about 72 degrees and set with 1 /10 ounce rennet extract 
per 1,000 lbs. of milk, well stirred in, at about 3 p. m. The 
temperature may be somewhat higher, up to 80 degrees, if 
necessary, to get the desired acidity as indicated below. 

About 4 a. m. next morning, the milk should be found 
well curdled, and the whey acidity at about .30 or .35%, but 
not lower than this. The curd is now cut with ordinary curd 
knives, preferably with blades. After cutting, some makers 
heat up the surface of the curd next the tin vat, by running 
steam into the jacket, with no stirring. This may allow the 
curd to drain more freely next the tin, later, or it may be 
omitted if thought useless. 

About Yi to 1 hour after cutting the curd has settled 
somewhat under the whey and a vat strainer is put in above 
the gate and the whey allowed to drain out slowly. When 
down to the level of the curd, the curd is dipped out with 
large scoops in thin layers into a cloth covered draining vat, 
made of smooth boards with a wooden slat bottom. After 
dipping the curd the vat is washed and filled with fresh 
skim milk. The curd drains in the rack, and a ditch is made 
around the edge with an opening through the bottom in 
each corner to carry off whey from the top. After draining 
an hour or two, until the top whey is all off, salt is sprinkled 
all over the top of the curd, but not stirred in. The curd is 
then scooped up in thin slices in a tin scoop into tin molds 
holding 7 or 8 lbs. of cheese, 4^ inches square at the end, 
and 9 inches long, slightly larger at the top than at the 
bottom. The form is lined with cheese cloth before filling, 
and the filled forms are piled three or more deep, for slight 
pressing, and may be placed in the refrigerator for chilling. 
The molds are perforated with J^-inch holes and 1 inch 
apart, so that the draining is readily completed on the same 
day. The loaves of curd hold their shape well, and are 
turned out of the molds, and wrapped in parchment paper 



136 Cheese Making. 

and packed 12 in a tin shipping case. The cheese may also 
be made in molds 6 inches deep and 123/2 inches in diameter. 
Like all Neufchatel cheese, the product is eaten while 
fresh. 



Fig. 25. — Loaf Neufchatel Cheese. Perforated molds for draining the curd, 
and shipping cans are used for this product. 



(186) Coulommier Cheese, Made in Hoops. Neuf- 
chatel cheese in tin foil is stirred up with salt and then 
moulded into shape after draining and pressing, while the 
Neufchatel curd in loaves is molded into form during the 
draining process. 

It is possible also to put the curd into molds at the begin- 
ning of the draining process, so that when fully drained the 
cheese have their final shape, which they retain during the 
salting process and until eaten. The Coulommier is made 
in this way. 

The cheese of this class are made by dipping the rennet 
curd with a ladle into small tin hoops, in which the draining 
takes place. The cheese take their shape from the hoop and 
are salted on the outside. Coulommier cheese and a few 
other kinds are eaten fresh without curing and for this 
reason are easier for the student to make, as an introduction 
to the subject. 

Mixed night's and morning's milk of good quality and 
not over .20-21% acidity may be used. With very sweet 



Fresh, Soft Rennet Cheese. 137 

milk, K~l% °f starter may be added, in order to avoid 
gassy cheese. The milk, at about 86 to 90 degrees, is 
thickened with 3 to 5 ounces of rennet extract, so as to be 
smooth, firm and ready to cut in about 1 to 1 l /i hours. It 
may be top stirred to keep down cream, at 10 minute inter- 
vals, before visible thickening begins. 

The curd is transferred with a round bottomed, sharp 
edged ladle to tin hoops, which stand on straw matting or 
on coarse cloth, as burlaps, spread on grooved draining 
boards, usually made of wood. The ladle should be small 
enough to reach down into the hoop, so that the curd can 
be gently laid on the bottom, without breaking. Four 
hoops, b% or 6 inches deep, and 3 to 5 3^2 inches in diameter, 
and open at both top and bottom, stand on one board which 
is about 12 by 14 inches. The sides of the hoops may be 
perforated with holes y% inch in diameter and about 1 inch 
apart. The hoop is best made in two halves, the upper 
half fitting into the lower half about half an inch. 

After filling the hoops, any remaining curd may be 
added to the top of the first hoops filled, after the curd has 
settled somewhat. 

In about 20 hours, or sooner, the curd has shrunk into 
the lower half of the hoop, so that the top half may be taken 
off. The rate at which the whey is expelled depends on 
several factors. With quite sweet milk, the curd drains 
more slowly, so that it is better to have the whey acidity at 
about .18-.20% when the curd is dipped into the hoops. 
The make room should be at about 60 to 75 degrees, best 
at 68 degrees, and not too dry. If dipped in thin slices, the 
curd will drain more rapidly than if in thick slices. 

When the top half of the hoop is removed, a square of 
matting or coarse cloth is put on, and another draining board 
and the hoops together with the boards are turned over. 
The curd begins to drain again more rapidly from the side 
now underneath. The upper board and cloth are removed 
and the top rind of the cheese, showing the pattern of the 
cloth or matting is sprinkled with about y % ounce of salt. 
The next morning the cheese are turned again and the other 
end and edge are salted. After 24 hours further draining, 
the cheese are ready to be wrapped in parchment paper or 

10 



138 Cheese Making. 

tin foil, packed in individual boxes, sold and eaten. They 
may be kept a few days, if cool and well covered to prevent 
drying out. In handling the cheese care is used at all times 
not to break the rind or surface. 

Cheese of this kind, if not sold promptly, may be kept 
cool for several days or weeks, during which time they 
undergo more or less curing, develop more flavor and may 
get moldy on the surface; but for proper curing, curing room 
conditions must be carefully controlled, as for Camembert 
and similar cheese. Read Bulletin 172, Ontario Agricul- 
tural College. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

SOFT, RIPENED RENNET CHEESE. 

(187) Camembert Cheese. This variety of cheese, 
originally made in France about 1800, is now made in a few 
factories in this country with more or less success. The 
very moist curing room conditions, occurring naturally in 
France, are hard to supply in this country, because of the 
drier climate except on the west coast. 

The methods and equipment in French factories are 
described in bulletin 58 and others from the Storrs Expt. 
Station, Connecticut, and in Farmers' Bulletin 384. 

The make room should be at 60-70 F., as below 60 F. 
the separation of whey from curd is delayed, or even entirely 
interrupted. Night's and morning's milk in good condi- 
tion, at 85 degrees, F., is set with about 3% starter, and 
ripened to .20-23% acidity, but if at .24-25% acidity a 
mealy curd is likely to result. A starter tasting quite sour 
but not yet curdled is preferred. Rennet at the rate of 
3-5 ounces per 1,000 lbs. milk is used, and the curd cut in 
1 ^-1 V2 hours. If the draining room is too cold, the curd 
may be cut before dipping, but with the room at 68 F., the 
curd is dipped directly into the hoops without cutting and 
in 18 hours the curd should have shrunk to less than 2 inches 
in thickness and can be turned over without breaking. 
Hoops with small holes and smooth inside surface facilitate 
settling and turning. The hoops stand on mats on a drain- 
ing board and table. 

When first turned, the cheese may be inoculated, if this 
is to be done, and are then salted on one side. Twelve hours 
later they may be turned again and salted on the other 
side. Use dry salt and avoid too much. They are then 
placed on salting boards, 24 by 30 inches, holding 30 cheese, 
and set on an upper shelf in the make room, leaving the 
draining table empty. By the third afternoon the cheese 
may be taken to the curing room. Here they are placed 
upon open frames containing cane or wooden strips about 



140 Cheese Making. 

1-1 34 inches apart, so as to expose the cheese to the air 
both at top and bottom. 

During salting, the cheese contain about 60% of moisture, 
and when fully cured, about 50%. In the curing room, at 
52-58 degrees F., and with high humidity, the cheese 
gradually dry during 2 or 3 weeks and then lose very little 
afterward. If too moist, the cheese grow white mold 
quickly and are apt to decay or liquefy. If too dry, the 
edges become hard and knife-like. If the cheese in 10-12 days 
develop sufficient red slime and gray-green mold, they are 
then put in a drier room, and the drying is finished quickly 
down to the proper point. The mold colonies should be well 
established when the cheese are one week in the curing 
room. Lack of mold tends to make high flavored cheese, 
and to decomposition, while too much mold gives a creamy 
texture with but little flavor. 

During the first two weeks in the curing room, the cheese 
become sticky and smell yeasty in about 3-4 days. In 
5-6 days the white threads of mold appear, with perhaps 
some colored spores. The mold should cover only part of 
the surface and the rest is reddish and slimy. If the room 
is too moist, the cheese are sticky and yeasty with little 
mold, or other kinds of molds. If too dry, the mold covers 
the cheese with a dark felt, colored by spores. Between 
these two extremes, the best conditions are found. 

In two weeks' time the rind should be well formed and 
softening begun underneath it. When softening begins the 
cheese are removed to solid curing boards to avoid cut- 
ting the rind by the cane strips. They are turned fre- 
quently avoid sticking to the boards. 

At 60 F., in three weeks' time, cheese may be almost 
fully softened, but at 50-54 degrees may be only half ripe 
in that time. Ripened quickly, they must be used at once 
or will decay and smell ammoniacal. Ripened in four weeks 
or more they keep longer but are generally wrapped in parch- 
ment, or tin foil and boxed when three weeks old or less. 
The soft, ripened curd is alkaline to litmus, but the fresh 
curd is acid. 

(188) Brie Cheese. Fromage de Brie, or Brie cheese 
is made in about the same manner as Camembert cheese, 



Ripened Cheese. 141 

but in hoops 10 or 12 inches in diameter. The finished 
cheese is of a soft, almost creamy texture. A very fine 
example of this class of cheese is the Fromage de la Trappe, 
made at Oka, Province of Quebec, Canada, and sold by 
many dealers in the United States. 

(189) Soft, Ripened Rennet Cheese Heated After 
Cutting. Heating Cut Curds. While the preceding 
rennet cheese are dipped into the hoops, without previous 
cutting, at the temperature of the vat, the Limburger cheese 
process introduces a further modification, in that the curd 
is cut into cubes with knives and the cut curd is held in the 
vat for some time, stirring and slowly raising the tempera- 
ture, so as to expel a large part of the whey before the curd 
is dipped into the hoops. 

(190) Limburger Cheese Process. This important 
variety, which originated in Belgium, is made at about 
60 factories in southern Wisconsin and in a few other states. 
The partly cured cheese is wrapped in parchment paper and 
tin foil before packing it for market and the tin foil retains 
odors in the rind, which many persons do not care for. If 
a well cured Limburger cheese is unwrapped out of doors 
and a thin layer of rind, about y% inch thick is cut off from 
the entire surface with a sharp knife the clean soft interior 
of the cheese taken to the table exhibits far less disagreeable 
odor and the cheese thus prepared is spread on bread and is 
relished by many. 

(191) The Milk Supply. For making Limburger, 
only the best and cleanest milk should be used, as gassy or 
tainted or overripe milk is sure to produce an inferior 
product. For sweet milk cheese such as Limburger and 
Swiss cheese a much better quality of milk is essential than 
for American cheese since the development of acid in milk 
for American cheese does much toward checking the pro- 
duction of gas and tainted flavors in the cheese. 

In warm weather milk for Limburger cheese is brought 
twice a day to the factory, while fresh and warm from the 
cow, and is made into cheese as soon as received, both night 
and morning. If quickly cooled at night and properly 
cared for on the farm, night's and morning's milk may be 
mixed together with good results. 



142 Cheese Making. 

(192A) The Process of Making. The milk in the 
vat at about 86-90 degrees, is set usually without starter 
and with enough rennet (33^ to 5 ounces per thousand lbs.) 
so as to cut in about 25 to 30 minutes. After cutting with 
curd knives into cubes, the curd is stirred and after 
10-15 minutes it is slowly heated to about 95 degrees. 
About three-quarters of an hour after cutting, the whey 
should not test over .15% acid. The curd is now ready to 
dip, while quite soft. The whey is drawn down until the 
curd begins to show above the whey surface, and the curd 
and remaining whey are dipped with a flat sided curd pail 
into wooden molds, placed on an inclined draining table 
which is covered with coarse cloth or burlaps. The molds 
are filled to the top, and after 15-20 minutes when the curd 
has settled, the molds are turned over on the cloth and left 
to drain, with 3 or 4 additional turnings during the day. 
No boards or weights are placed on the curd. 

The wooden or tinned, sheet iron molds or hoops are 
5 inches wide, and 8 inches deep, and may be 10 or 30 inches 
long. They are perforated with 3^-inch holes about 2 or 
3 inches apart, or wooden molds may have the inner surface 
scored about l /i inch deep, with a saw blade, forming vertical 
grooves about \}/2 inches apart. The holes or grooves aid 
in the draining. 

(192B) Salting and Curing. The next morning the 
hoops are removed and the block of curd is cut into 2-lb. 
square blocks, or oblong 1-pound blocks. These are rolled 
lightly in coarse, dry salt, and piled one deep on the salting 
table. The second morning they are salted again and piled 
two deep. The third morning they are salted again lightly 
and piled three deep and on the following morning they are 
taken to the curing room and placed on the flat side, close 
together on shelves. 

The curing room is kept at about 60-65 degrees and at 
about 95% humidity. The cheese are turned over and 
rubbed by hand every other day and if the surface becomes 
at all dry, they are washed with water containing a little 
salt. After 10 days they may be placed on edge, close 
together. Curing requires about 6 weeks, but the cheese 
may be wrapped in paper and tin foil when three weeks old, 



Ripened Cheese. 



143 



and packed for shipment. After a few weeks in the curing 
room, the surface is smooth from rubbing and turns a 
brownish color, while the interior begins to soften just 
below the rind. The curing proceeds toward the center 
until the kernel of white, crumbly curd is entirely softened 
and disappears when the cheese is fully ripe and ready to 
eat. Curing may be delayed somewhat in cold storage. 




Fig. 26. — Limburger Curing Cellar. The cheese are shown on the salting table 
and on the curing shelves. 



Limburger cheese is made as described above in oblong 
tin cheese vats, using American curd knives and having the 
draining table placed along side of the vat. It is also made 
in round copper kettles by the same general process, using 
the scoop, wooden sword, and Swiss harp commonly em- 
ployed with a round kettle. 

Limburger cheese is quite compact, showing few if any 
holes on the cut surface. It contains about 45% of moisture. 
The surface is never paraffined. 

(193A) Brick Cheese Making. This variety of cheese, 
said to have originated in America, is made much like Lim- 
burger, but is a little drier and slower curing and does not 



144 



Cheese Making. 



become liquid or creamy in consistence when fully cured. 
The milk used need not be so sweet as for Limburger, and 
mixed night's and morning's milk is commonly used. 

If the milk is very sweet, or tends to be gassy, the addi- 
tion of about Yz per cent of starter is desirable. Without 
waiting for ripening, the milk at about .16-17% acidity is 
set at 86-90 degrees with 33^-4^ ounces of rennet extract 
per thousand pounds, so as to cut in about 30 minutes. 

After cutting with American curd knives, the curd is 
stirred for about 10-15 minutes and then heated slowly 
(in about 30 minutes) to 110-120 degrees, according to the 
maker's judgment. 

The curd is not allowed to become as firm as for American 
cheese and the whey acidity should not go over .15%, but 
the maker watches the firmness and seldom uses an acid 
test. When firm enough a handful of the curd no longer 
appears like a mass of quaking jelly or wet mortar, when 
gently shaken, but the curd pieces are firm enough so that 
the whey runs out freely from among them, leaving some air 
spaces visible among the cubes in the handful. 

The whey is drawn until the curd begins to show above 
the surface, and about one hour after cutting, the curd and 
remaining whey are dipped out of the vat with a flat sided 
curd pail into wooden molds (192 A) of the same dimensions 




Fig. 26A. — Brick Cheese In the Forms, under Pressure. 



Ripened Cheese. 145 

as for Limburger cheese and arranged on the draining table 
in like manner. Factories making brick cheese throughout 
the season, commonly use the 10-inch molds, which are 
placed close together on the table so that the curd from the 
pail runs into two molds at once. Each mold makes one 
brick cheese. 

Factories making Swiss cheese during most of the season 
make brick cheese usually at the beginning and end of the 
season, when the milk is delivered in small quantity once a 
day. 

The cheese are turned with the mold about 10-15 
minutes after dipping, and a wooden follower is dropped into 
each mold, and a 10-inch mold is weighed with one ordinary 
building brick, preferably with a glazed surface to prevent 
absorption of moisture. For a 30-inch mold, two bricks are 
used. Each time the hoops are turned the board and weight 
are replaced. 

(193B) Salting and Curing. The cheese are salted 
on three successive mornings, the same as with Limburger 
cheese and are then scraped on the edge with a dull knife 
blade to fill up and smooth the surface, and placed on the 
curing room shelves. 

The tendency of a beginner is to salt the cheese too 
heavily, which causes them afterward to become very sticky 
and slimy on the surface and later very hard on the rind. 
The rind should be just firm enough after curing to hold the 
cheese in regular shape, so that it can be handled and packed 
without damage. With too little salt the rind is soft and 
thin and the cheese will bulge and lose their shape and the 
flavor will be affected. 

The curing room is kept at about 60-65 degrees, and the 
floor may be sprinkled with a jet of water, if necessary, to 
keep the air moist. 

In the curing room they are washed every other day, 
turned and replaced on the shelf. They slowly become 
brownish on the surface and waxy and translucent inside, 
but not creamy as curing proceeds. For complete curing 
about 8 weeks is required. 

When half cured the cheese may be allowed to dry for a 
day or two, after which they may be dipped in paraffin to 



146 



Cheese Making. 



prevent further drying out and wrapped in parchment and 
manilla paper, and packed in cases about 22 inches wide, 
SI inches long, and 5^ inches deep, or sometimes in half 
boxes 15 inches long, inside measurement. 

Brick cheese are rarely wrapped in tin foil, except for 
shipment to a warm climate, where there is danger of exces- 
sive shrinkage through drying out, unless wrapped. 

Brick cheese show on the cut surface a few small holes 
either of irregular outline, or somewhat rounded. 

The cheese contains 40% of moisture or a little more, or 
less and is thus just on the border line between soft cheese 
and hard cheese. 

(194) Muenster Cheese. The curd is made in the 
same way as for brick, but the cheese forms are round, 
made of sheet metal and perforated. The cheese after 
draining in the hoops are salted like brick cheese, but must 
be kept on one of the flat ends and wooden blocks are often 
used between the cheese on the salting table to keep them 
in the proper shape, while developing a rind. 




Fig. 26B. — Muenster Cheese In Hoops On The 1'n 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

HARD, RIPENED RENNET CHEESE. 

(195) Swiss. Cheese. In making this and all other 
kinds of hard cheese, the curd is heated and well firmed in 
the whey before the curd is put into hoops. 

(196) The Milk Supply for Swiss Cheese. Milk for 
Swiss cheese is regularly brought to the factory both night 
and morning, fresh and warm from the cow, and is made into 
cheese without delay, twice a day, in several hundred fac- 
tories in Wisconsin. It is often made once a day, from mixed 
milk in Europe. 

Milk inspection should be carefully done daily (10). The 
sediment test, fermentation test, and Wisconsin curd test 
may frequently be used in detecting the source of defective 
milk. Abnormal milk is especially harmful in making Swiss 
cheese. 

(197) The Swiss Making Process and Tools. A 
copper kettle holding 2,500 or 3,000 lbs. is used. In the past 
it was hung on a crane, and heated over an open fire, but 
the building soon became blackened by the smoke. The 
kettle and fire are now therefore usually surrounded by a 
movable jacket, connected to a chimney, and provided with 
a cover to retain smoke when the kettle is swung away. Or, 
the kettle is often set permanently in brick work, and heated 
from below by a movable fire wagon on a little track below 
the floor. The latest method is to heat the kettle by steam 
in a jacket, or underneath the bottom. 

(a) The milk, strained into the kettle, is heated to 
90-95 degrees, and is ready to set with rennet. Commonly, 
home made whey rennet is used, but sometimes \i to J^% of 
lactic starter and some commercial extract may be used, if 
necessary. The whey rennet acts both as starter and as 
extract (61). 

While stirring the milk with the scoop, from the bottom 
of the kettle upward, the whey rennet diluted with water is 



148 Cheese Making. 

added, in quantity sufficient to thicken the milk ready for 
cutting in 25-35 minutes. The milk must become fully 
quiet before thickening begins. 

On account of the tendency of the top layer of milk to 
cool and curdle less rapidly, the vat is covered as soon as 
set and soon after thickening the scoop is used to take up 
and turn over a thin layer of curd from the top surface, to 
warm it again in this way. 

Afterward, the curd is cut with the harp, or with a wooden 
sword, into vertical columns, about XYt^Yi inches square. 
The tops of these are then cut off by drawing the scoop 
across the kettle, until the curd is all cut into cubes and well 
mixed. 

(b) The harp is then put in, and kept going steadily, 
cutting the curd finer, until it is of the size of wheat grains. 
The wire basket stirrer is then used, in place of the harp, to 
stir without cutting, and this stirrer is often run by ma- 
chinery instead of by hand. 

Too finely cut curd checks the formation of eyes, while 
too coarsely cut curd will ferment too freely, probably 
carrying too much moisture. 

Cutting evenly to the right size is more difficult if the 
curd is too hard, due to too much rennet used; but if curd is 
too soft, due to too little rennet used, much fine curd-dust is 
formed. With uneven cutting, the large pieces later may 
cause soft spots on the surface or interior, and irregular dis- 
tribution of eyes of different sizes. 

(c) When of sufficient fineness and firmness, the curd is 
allowed to settle for 10-15 minutes, during which it gains a 
certain elasticity, and part (about one-fifth) of the whey is 
drawn out, to permit more rapid stirring afterward. It is 
then stirred with the wire basket stirrer until evenly divided, 
when the heat is turned on and with continual stirring, the 
temperature is raised in 25-35 minutes to 125-140 degrees, 
according to the maker's judgment. 

The heating is done more slowly when the curd is softer, 
and more rapidly when the curd is already quite firm. A 
higher temperature is used when large cheese are made, or 
when the curd particles are larger, or the milk thickened 
more slowly. A lower temperature is used if the curd is cut 



Hard, Ripened Rennet Cheese. 149 

very fine, or the curd was very thick because of strong 
rennet, etc. 

When heated up, some makers add a small quantity 
(half a pail) of cold water, lowering the temperature about 
one degree, believing that this makes the curd softer and 
more elastic. 

(d) The final stirring, "to dry the curd" need not be so 
rapid, since the heat is turned off, and there is no danger of 
overheating the curd. It is continued, until a handful of 
curd, firmly pressed together, breaks off short when bent, 
and is easily rubbed to pieces in the hands. As a rule the 
warming and the^ final stirring require together about 50-60 
minutes. 

When the test is satisfactory, the stirring is stopped, and 
some cold water or cool whey is added, but the temperature 
should not be reduced below 125 degrees. If cheese sets 
(forms eyes) freely, water is used; if not freely, whey is used. 
After this addition, the curd is stirred briskly, and the stirrer 
is then held vertically in the middle of the kettle, so that the 
curd settles quickly, to prevent large curd pieces from 
collecting at the outside of the pile, where they would cause 
large holes or rindholes. The curd is dipped immediately. 

(e) For this purpose, the square cloth is moistened along 
one edge, which is wrapped two or three times around the 
"boegli," -a long thin flexible strip of steel, by means of 
which the cloth is slipped between the curd and the kettle, 
without much disturbing the curd. The opposite corners of 
the cloth are then tied together, and the bag of curd hoisted 
with rope and pulleys hanging on a conveyor track. After 
draining the whey for an instant, the curd is run over to the 
press table, and lowered into a form, which is round for 
"drum" Swiss, or oblong for "block" Swiss cheese. The 
curd is pressed down to fit the form, with the flat hands, 
thus also freeing any large whey masses that may be con- 
tained. Immediately, a second dip into the kettle is made 
with another cloth to collect any remaining curd, and this 
small mass (strebel) is either rubbed up fine and distributed 
over the top of the main lot, or in a mass is pressed into a 
hole made with the hand, at one side, next the form. Rapid 
cooling of the curd mass should be avoided and the cloth 



150 



Cheese Making. 



is folded over smoothly, and a heavy (2 inch), round, iron 
edged, wooden cover is put on the cheese, and a weight 
applied. A 100 lb. stone, or a keg of bricks may be used, for 
this purpose. The hoop should touch neither the table nor 
the cover, but the weight should rest entirely on the cheese 
itself. The hoop is drawn tighter if necessary, to leave a 
finger width above and below it. With too heavy pressure 




Fig. 27. — Swiss Cheese Dipping. The cloth hag of curd hoisted from the 
kettle is drained for a few seconds as shown, before transferring to the press table 
and hoop. 



at first, the whey is milky, the cheese becomes too hard, and 
the cloth sticks to the surface, causing damage in removing, 
later. 

(f) The cheese is turned frequently at first, and dry 
cloths applied, avoiding wrinkles, which cause marks in the 
rind, which may later cause splits. The press drippings are 
more or less impure and are not used for starter, whey 
rennet, or sour whey, but may be skimmed while fresh, for 
making whey cream. A softer cheese must be more often 
turned, which gradually tends to correct inequalities in curd 



Hard, Ripened Rennet Cheese. 



151 



texture. After 24 hours, the cheese are turned no more, but 
left in the press for 12 hours finally, either with no cloth, or 
with cloth only on the bottom, to form a smoother rind. 
The pressure is gradually increased up to 18-20 lbs. per lb. 
of cheese, and is applied with a heavy log, or iron bar with 
sliding weight, hinged to the wall, near the ceiling. 

After 12 hours pressing, block Swiss curds are cut into 
20-lb. strips, about 5x6x20 inches in size, and each strip is 
placed in a separate mold, with a wooden cover, and cloth, 
and pressed to form a rind on the cut surfaces. 




Fig. 28. — Block Swiss Cheese. 

The appearance of the rind after 24 hours pressing 
should be yellowish, with small, whitish spots on the surface, 
and elastic under the fingers. The cheese is taken after 24 
or 36 hours to the salting room. Each cheese is dated, with 
soot and water paste, on the surface. 

(g) The cheese may be salted "in the hoop", or "in the 
brine." Frequently, it is salted one or two days in the hoop 
to harden the rind, and retain its shape better, and then is 
placed in the brine tank. This method also avoids heating 
the brine tank, by adding slightly warm cheese. The inside 
of the wet hoop is strewed thickly \yith salt, and the hoop 
applied tT> the cheese after which the top surface is strewn 
evenly with salt from a sieve. Next day, the cheese is turned 



152 Cheese Making. 

over, and again salted as before. This dry salting may be 
continued for four to six days, in the hoop, or the cheese may 
be put in brine after the first or second day. In the brine, 
the cheese are turned over daily, and salt sprinkled freely 
and evenly on the upper surface, which floats just at or 
above the brine surface. The brine contains about 26% 
salt, and as each cheese absorbs salt, and gives up some 
moisture, more salt must be added to the tank from time to 
time. The tank may be of wood or of concrete. Too weak 
brine soon becomes foul and injures the cheese. Fine salt 
on the cheese surface more quickly extracts moisture. More 
salt in the cheese checks fermentation, and less salt promotes 
fermentation (eye formation). Not more than two cheese 
should lie below each other in the tank. The cheese is left 
in the brine 2 or 3 days, and then taken to the first curing 
room. 

(h) Here it is turned, washed, rubbed, and salted every 
other day. If left longer without turning, on the "lead," or 
circular board, the rind is injured. The next day, after each 
salting, the salt is found to be fully dissolved, and the cheese 
wet with brine. The second day, the brine is again fully 
absorbed, and the cheese ready for turning. The turned 
cheese is left on a dry board, on the shelf, each day, to pre- 
vent becoming moldy or foul. Toward the end of the ripen- 
ing, the turning and salting need not be done more than 
every third day, and less salt is used. A large flat brush is 
often used for rubbing cheese. The rind must be kept clean. 

(i) During 10-12 weeks, the eyes gradually grow. Each 
cheese is tested by tapping with the finger, and if the sound 
indicates too rapid fermentation (eye formation) it is taken to 
a cooler room, or if too slow, to a warmer room. To prevent 
•bulging at the edge, a hoop may be put on. 

Besides temperature, the humidity should also be regu- 
lated. With a dry cheese, the salting is lighter, and the 
room damper. The temperature and humidity should be 
kept as uniform as possible in each room, for which purpose, 
Swiss cheese are usually cured in underground cellars, 
lighted only by a few narrow windows, near the ceiling. 

When properly open (eyes large enough) the cheese are 
taken to the storage cellar, at a lower temperature, where the 



Hard, Ripened Rennet Cheese. 153 

turning and salting are continued, until "salt ripe," that is 
until salt is no more absorbed freely, but the surface remains 
wet and sticky, showing that the interior has sufficient salt. 
In ventilating a cellar, direct drafts on the cheese must 
be avoided, as likely to cause drying and cracking of the 
surface. A bursted cheese is sure to become foul inside, and 
cause loss. To prevent slight cracking, cloth strips are some- 
times stuck tightly to the rind around the edge, when thought 
necessary. Temperatures used in the curing cellars may be 
as tollows, according to European practise. 

Temperature Humidity 

For fresh cheese 52-59 degrees F. 90-95% 

For the first curing room 60-65 85-90% 

For the warm curing room 65-70 80-85% 

For the storage room 50-55 80-85% 

American warm rooms are often heated to 90, F. 

(k) At many small factories in Wisconsin, having only 
limited curing room space, the cheese are kept for one to 
three months, and then sold to the buyer, who has large 
curing rooms, in which the best No. 1 cheese are further 
opened, and finished. 

(198) Swiss Cheese Quality. Serious faults in Swiss 
cheese may be: (1) "Blind" cheese develop no eyes, due to 
too ripe milk, or too dry cheese, or too low curing temper- 
atures, etc. (2) "Niszler" cheese show too many and too 
small holes, due to dirty milk, which often produces gassy 
texture in all kinds of cheese. The use of a small amount of 
extra "sour whey" or of whey rennet (without increasing 
the amount of calf stomach used), may often prevent such 
gassy cheese. (3) "Glaesler" or glass cheese show hori- 
zontal cracks or splits instead of eyes, all through the inte- 
rior, which may be due to too sweet or too ripe milk, or too 
much added sour whey, to too dry cheese, to variable temper- 
atures in the curing room, or to too rich milk with 3.75 to 
4.5% fat. One of our students reports that with the Mar- 
schall rennet test used in his factory, a milk that tests five 
or six will be sure to give a glaesler cheese, while milk at 33^ 
will not do so. (4) "Blown" cheese develop too large eyes, 
which may run together, forming large cavities, and splitting 

n 



154 



Cheese Making. 



the rind, causing great loss, due to too moist cheese, too 
warm curing temperature, too little salting, etc. 

At some factories, "blowing" of the cheese has been 
observed to begin when 1 to 2 weeks old, and to continue 
rapidly, until the cheese become spongy and crack open when 
less than a month old. Total loss of such cheese may be 
avoided by placing them very early in cold storage at 34 
degrees or a lower temperature. The cause in several such 
cases has been traced to a foul, yeasty condition in the whey 




Fig. 29.— Bloated Swiss Cheese. A yeasty fermentation in the whey tank caused 
this bloating. As soon as the maker began steaming the whey in the tank no more 
trouble of this kind occurred. 



tank, so that the patron's cans used for carrying home whey, 
become infected, and if not thoroughly washed, infect the 
milk, and the next day's cheese. Pasteurization of the whey 
tank, by running in steam, up to 155 degrees, has been 
found to stop such loss immediately, at several factories. 

Blown cheese are sometimes thought to be due to feeding 
corn silage to cows, but at numerous factories where no such 
trouble occurred, it was found that silage was freely and reg- 
ularly fed, without bad effects. 



Hard, Ripened Rennet Cheese. 



155 



At the Wisconsin dairy school, during 1915 and 1916, 
block Swiss cheese, made on 50 days from the milk of cows 
fed silage daily with hay, but no pasture, showed no tendency 
to bloat. 

The imported Swiss cheese which reach this country are 
hard, whitish, and short, and not at all elastic, but well 
salted and cured. The domestic make of Swiss cheese is 
often sold and eaten in an uncured condition, very elastic and 
rubbery, yellow in color, with no salty taste, and little or no 
flavor. This is an injury to the industry. 




Fig. 30. — Fine Quality Swiss Cheese. The uniform size and even distribution 
of the eyes seen here is characteristic of the best Swiss Cheese - 



No. 1 cheese in the market have good flavor and salt, 
eyes of the right size, evenly distributed, and doughy texture, 
neither sticky nor too dry; but if the eyes are right, the rest 
is likely to be satisfactory. 

No. 2 cheese in the market include glass, niszler, blind, or 
those with uneven, or abnormal eyes, if not split open. 

No. 3 cheese include any with surface openings, caused 
by rats, mice, flies, bloated cheese, or having decayed spots. 

While the price of No. 1 Swiss cheese is always high, yet 
many factories are unable to produce always No. 1 cheese, 



156 



Cheese Making. 



so that the full price is not always obtained. On account of 
the large amount of curing room work, and the necessity for 
making cheese twice daily, morning and night, Swiss factories 
are operated almost exclusively by native Swiss makers who 
have come to this country after learning the process. 

Because of the fine quality and the high* prices always 
obtained for the best Swiss cheese' of domestic make, it 
appears desirable that its manufacture should be undertaken 
more widely, and by native American workmen, in this 
country. 

(199A) Edam Cheese. In northern Holland, Edam 
cheese are made in round kettles and tubs. The method used 
for making Edam cheese in the United States resembles 
closely the method of making American cheese by the gran- 




Fig. 31. — Edam Cheese Mould made of cast iron. 



ular process (205)~ excepting that the cheese is well colored 
by adding 1-1 K ounces of cheese color to the milk, and the 
method of hooping and subsequent treatment is different. 

The curd is well firmed in the whey, and well stirred in 
the vat, after drawing the whey, and salted in the granular 
form. The cast iron Edam cheese molds are lined with 
strips of cheese cloth and well filled with curd, so that after 
pressing, the cheese will yet fill the hoop, and not allow the 
base and the cover to rest on each other. After pressing for 
a half hour or more in the gang press used for Young Amer- 
ica cheese, the cheese are taken from the hoops, any rough 



Hard, Ripened Rennet Cheese. 



157 



places trimmed off, and dipped for about two minutes in hot 
whey at about 125 degrees. They are then wrapped again 
completely in the cheese cloth strips, and returned to the 
hoops and left in the press over night. 

The next day, the cheese are examined, and if the rind 
is perfectly closed, they are ready for salting. This is done 
by rubbing dry salt over the entire surface, and after placing 
the cheese in the salting hoop, dropping a small handful of 
dry salt on the upper surface, and leaving uncovered until 




Fig. 32. — Edam Cheese on the Curing Room Shelves in Holland. 



next day. The cheese are then turned over in the mold and 
the other side salted, and this is repeated for 4 or 5 days. 
Finally, the cheese are washed with whey, wiped dry, and 
placed on the curing room shelf. The air should be quite 
moist to prevent the rind from drying out and cracking, and 
the temperature at about 60-65 degrees, F. The cheese are 
turned daily, may be washed to keep the surface clean and 
prevent cracking. Later, when the surface is well dried, they 
are colored a dark red by dipping in a red dye, which can 
be bought in the market. After standing again on the 



158 Cheese Making. 

shelf until the surface is well dried, they may be dipped in 
hot parafhne, and packed for shipment. 

Using half-skimmed milk, a rather dry, and well salted 
cheese is produced. Instead of parafhne, the cheese may be 
rubbed with boiled linseed oil, which is applied to the salted 
and partly cured cheese to prevent cracking of the rind, and 
the red color may be applied later by dipping in an alcoholic 
solution of carmine or Berlin red. After a final rubbing with 
oil, they are packed for shipment. 

(199B) Gouda Cheese. These are made in south Hol- 
land, and have the shape of a flattened ball or sphere. The 




Fig. 33. — Gouda Cheese Hoop, Used In Holland. 

cheese is made from sweet milk, cutting the curd very fine, 
and firming well in the whey. The whey is then drawn, and 
the curd pushed to the upper end of the vat with a strainer 
board, and left to mat. The matted curd is later cut into 
square blocks, one of which nearly fills the Gouda hoop. 
After pressing, the cheese are salted in brine. They are made 
in several sizes. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

AMERICAN CHEESE FOR THREE MARKETS. 

(200) The Quality Should Suit the Trade. In North 
America, enormous quantities of whole milk American 
cheese are made for three markets. Canadian cheese made 
throughout Ontario and Quebec are sold mainly for export 
to Great Britain, or to residents of Canada, and nearly all 
of this cheese is made firm, close, slow curing, and containing 
about 34 to 36 percent of moisture. 

In the United States, over half of the American cheese 
manufactured, is made in Wisconsin, a smaller amount in 
New York, and several other states have made a beginning 
in the cheese industry. Although more or less cheese is made 
for export in these states, yet the greater part is intended for 
sale throughout the western and southern states. The 
quality for this purpose need not be quite so firm, or close, or 
slow curing as for export while the moisture content is about 
37 to 40 percent in Wisconsin, the upper limit being estab- 
lished by state law. 

In some other states, having as yet no cheese moisture 
laws, cheese made in local factories are sold and eaten almost 
entirely within the state, and for this purpose the standards 
of quality are often much lower, the cheese being frequently 
quite open or full of holes, quick curing, soft, and containing 
39 to 43 percent of moisture. Such cheese are entirely un- 
suitable for either the export trade or the great southern 
trade, and are fit neither for shipment to any distance nor 
for storage through the winter, as in either case they are 
likely to deteriorate greatly. These are sometimes called 
"home trade" cheese, or "Michigan soft" cheese, etc. 

These three classes of cheese differ so greatly in their 
quality and method of manufacture, that it is necessary for 
a maker to decide definitely which kind of cheese his trade 
demands, and what market he is intending to supply, before 
beginning work. Sometimes a maker offers cheese, for ex- 



160 Cheese Making. 

ample, for the southern trade, which are made with so high 
a moisture content that they are not really fit for this trade. 
Such abuses have led to the establishment of legal cheese 
moisture limits in the leading cheese producing states. 

(201) Moisture in Cheese. In 1916, 567 samples of 
cheese, collected from factories and dealers in all parts of 
Wisconsin, were tested* for moisture at the University of 
Wisconsin Dairy School, under the writer's direction, and it 
was found that the dividing line between good southern 
trade quality of cheese and "too moist" cheese lay at about 
40% before July 1st, and at about 39% during the later 
months of the season (96). 

The general principles underlying the manufacture of 
a cheese containing a larger percentage of moisture are 
(1) the shortening of time between the cutting and hooping 
the curd, and (2) the use of sweeter milk with little or no 
starter. With sweet milk, as at .16%, the curd gives up 
moisture more slowly than at a higher acidity up to .20% 
and by also shortening the time allowed, the increased mois- 
ture content is obtained, and a higher yield but an inferior 
quality, if the milk is at all defective. 

The importance of a cheese moisture test outfit in the 
cheese factory is coming to be realized by leading makers and 
managers. 

(202) Method of Making Canadian Export Cheese. 
The milk in the vat is commonly treated with about 1 % of 
starter, and is set at 86 degrees, at about .175% acidity by 
the acidimeter, using 3 or 3^ ounces of rennet extract per 
thousand pounds. The curd is cut in about 40 minutes 
when showing clear whey in the break, but while yet rather 
softer than is customary in Wisconsin, using % inch hori- 
zontal wire knives and 34 mcn vertical wire knives, and lap- 
ping the vertical cuts so as to almost double the cutting 
effect upon the fineness of the curd cubes. The agitators are 
started slowly, immediately after cutting, and the steam is 
turned on slowly, so that the vat is heated to about 100 
degrees in about 45 minutes. After heating, the whey is 
drawn down about 8 inches in the vat, and the agitators are 
run faster, at about 12 revolutions per minute. 



*From thesis of L. J. Schenkenberg, M. S., 1916, University of Wisconsin. 



American Cheese for Three Markets. 



161 



The whey is tested for acidity with the acidimeter at 
intervals, and the curd is allowed to become quite firm and 
elastic, much more so than in Wisconsin. The whey is drawn 
23^ to 3 hours after setting the vat, at a whey acidity of 
about .17%. Three hours time is preferred rather than 2*4 
hours. As much whey as possible is drawn out through a 
siphon, as the vats have no gates attached to the pans. The 
remaining whey together with the curd is then dipped out of 



*"Sta^i f ?i '■" pill 




--■ -^m ^^^^Er 

i 



Fig. 34. — Curd Sink in Use in a Large Canadian Factory. 



the vat, by two men with flat sided curd pails, into a curd 
sink covered with a heavy cotton curd cloth like sheeting. 
In the sink, the curd is stirred by two men, during a full half 
hour, so as to keep the cubes from matting, and to allow 
complete drainage of whey from the curd. In this way, all 
danger of soft, whey soaked cheese, containing excessive 
moisture, is avoided. Sometimes with milk riper, the whey 
is drawn at acidity as high as .20%, but preferably as de- 
scribed above. 

The curd is allowed to mat in a pile about 8 inches deep; 
and 3^2 an hour later the matted curd is cut across into long 
strips, which are turned up on the cut surface in the curd 



162 



Cheese Making. 



sink. In half an hour more the curd is piled two deep, and 
repiled at regular intervals to keep the temperature even, 
etc. About 2 hours after matting, the curd is milled. One 
hour later it is salted, and y 2 an hour later, it is hooped. 
This makes a total of 6 to 7 hours from setting to hooping. 
The curd is so firm and free from excessive moisture that 
just before salting, to obtain 10 cc. of curd drippings with 
which to make an acid test, it may be necessary to wring the 
corner of the curd cloth in the hand. 




Fig. 35. — Canadian Cheese Factory with Ten Vats in Use. 

The cheese thus made are shipped without delay to the 
buyers' warehouses, and cured by the cool curing system at 
about 60 degrees, and the product thus made is surprisingly 
uniform in flavor, texture, body, and keeping quality. 

The method described above was observed by the writer 
in 1914 and 1915, at a number of the largest factories in 
Ontario, some of which have 8 or 10 large vats full of milk 
daily. 

Under the close supervision of government inspectors, in 
Ontario and Quebec, a high degree of excellence and uni- 



American Cheese for Three Markets. 163 

formity is attained both in factory construction and mainte- 
nance, and in quality of cheese produced. The whey from 
the vats is run through gutters in the cement floors, and is 
not run through a whey separator in most cases. In some 
of the model factories, every piece of equipment is kept clean, 
scrubbed, painted, varnished, polished, and in the finest 
condition, including the boiler room and curing room as 
well as make room. 

The cooperative method of selling cheese from the 
province of Quebec, which are shipped to Montreal for 
export, is successful, and gives satisfaction both to buyers 
and sellers. 

The cheese are commonly paraffined at the buyer's 
warehouse, at the age of a week or more. 

(203) Method of Making American Cheese in 
Wisconsin. In making cheese in Wisconsin for the 
southern market or for export, the method is of course the 
same in a general way but with some important differences 
as to details. 

There is perhaps more variation in method among fac- 
tories in Wisconsin than among those observed in Canada. 
The milk acidity when received is from .16 to .20, and if of 
.18% or less is set with about 1% of starter, 3 to 4J^ ounces 
of rennet extract or pepsin solution is used or about 34 of an 
ounce by weight of dry pepsin (dissolved in luke warm 
water) per thousand pounds. The curd is cut in 25 to 
45 minutes, when it should be fairly firm and showing clear 
whey when broken with the finger. 

Stirring is begun with the arms, or agitator, immediately 
after cutting and is continued with little or no stop until 
the curd has been heated up to the desired temperature. 
The heating is begun about 15 or 20 minutes after cutting (or 
sooner with overripe milk), and the temperature is raised 
slowly and steadily up to about 100 or 102 degrees, or some 
times a little higher. The agitator or a wooden rake is used 
to stir while heating. 

With a "normally working" vat of milk, the acidity of 
the whey increases to about .17 or .19% in about two hours 
after the rennet is added and the whey is drawn at about 
this acidity. Some makers incline to the lowest possible 



164 Cheese Making. 

acidity of milk and of whey and others prefer to develop 
acidity equal to the larger figures given above so that the 
curd shows about j^ or 34 of an inch of fine strings by the 
hot iron test, when the whey is drawn. 

The vats in Wisconsin have gates, and the whey is allowed 
to drain out completely, the curd being retained in the vat 
by a tall, round strainer, having a tip which fits into the 
vat outlet, just above the gate. No curd sink is used in Wis- 
consin factories with one or two exceptions. 

If the curd is a little too soft when the acid has reached 
the desired point, the curd may be stirred over with the 
hands while the last of the whey is running out, to keep the 
curd from matting for a few minutes longer, and during this 
stirring, while out of the whey, the curd gives up moisture 
very rapidly. By leaving about an inch of whey in the vat 
and closing the gate, the curd may be stirred with the rake, 
teeth down, for five minutes or more if it is very soft, but 
with plenty of acid. It is planned to have the curd as firm 
as desired, at the same time that it shows the required acid 
test, and in this case no stirring of the curd is necessary after 
drawing the whey, but a gutter is made with a rake down 
the middle of the curd, piled about 3 to 6 inches thick and 
covering the bottom of the vat evenly. The gutter per- 
mits the last whey to escape freely, and the curd is al- 
lowed to mat, on the bottom of the vat, into a solid mass. 
In about five minutes, when well matted on the bottom, so 
that the escape of whey is slowed up, the curd is cut across 
the vat into blocks about 1 foot wide, and the blocks are 
immediately turned over. The curd is turned again after 
2\) minutes, when well matted on the bottom, and is piled 
two or more blocks deep and replied at 10 minutes intervals 
to keep the curd at uniform temperature throughout. 

The curd is milled, preferably when it will string Yi inch 
or more on the hot iron, and is well matted so as not to fall 
into cubes when milled. In many cases, an hour and a half 
after matting will find the curd in good condition to mill. 
Some makers will mill a curd much earlier, when it is matted 
only half an hour but before it has the acid, in their effort 
to retain moisture and gain yield. 



American Cheese for Three Markets. 165 

After milling, the curd is left at least half an hour, and 
if it appears very greasy, may be rinsed with water at 
90 degrees to remove the grease. It is salted with 2-2 1 /± lbs. 
salt per 1,000 lbs. milk, or per hundred pounds of curd, and 
is left in the vat at least 30 minutes with frequent stirring 
until the salt is fully dissolved, and the curd is once more soft 
and velvety. It is packed in the hoops at about 80-85 de- 
grees temperature and pressed over night. It is placed on 
the curing room shelves for a few days to dry the surface and 
is boxed and shipped when 3 to 8 days old. 

(204) Method of Making "Soft" American Cheese 
for Northern Home Trade. In this process, the purpose 
is to finish the work at the vat as soon as possible, to retain 
a larger proportion of moisture in the cheese and thus to 
increase the yield, and hasten the curing of the cheese. 

The general method employed to retain moisture is 
(1) to use sweet milk, ripened little or not at all, and little 
or no starter, and (2) to shorten the time for all parts of the 
work. 

The result of applying such methods to unclean, gassy 
milk is to produce a cheese with a very spongy texture, and 
which acquires a strong, sharp, tainted flavor in a very few 
weeks' curing. Local consumers, living near such factories 
in Michigan and to some extent in other states, have learned 
by custom to prefer cheese with a "right stout" flavor, which 
would be entirely unsalable either for export or in the large 
city markets. 

An example of the process will be given for illustration. 
The milk in the vat, more or less tainted, usually not sour 
but rather unripened, is set without starter, with 3^ or 
4 ounces of rennet per thousand pounds, at about 86 to 
90 degrees, F., and is cut in about half an hour into 3^-inch 
cubes. It is stirred and heated slowly to 98 or 100 degrees. 
The whey is drawn while the curd is quite soft, and without 
waiting for acid to develop sufficiently to show strings on the 
hot iron. The curd is not stirred while drawing whey, but 
is ditched in the middle to aid in draining. The curd mats 
quickly, and is milled about half an hour later, salted im- 
mediately after milling, and hooped in 15-20 minutes after 
salting, as soon as the salt has dissolved. 



166 Cheese Making. 

No acid tests or rennet tests need be made at any time 
during the process. With overripe milk the product is a 
sour cheese, and the yield is lower than with sweeter milk. 
This class of cheese is cured at ordinary temperature at the 
factory and sold to near-by consumers, or shipped to 
near-by town trade. They deteriorate rapidly and must be 
eaten young. 

Previous to the passage of cheese moisture laws in Wis- 
consin considerable quantities of this class of cheese were 
made in the state and caused great dissatisfaction and 
often loss to dealers who received them but who intended to 
buy cheese suitable for export or the southern trade. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

MINOR SORTS OF AMERICAN CHEESE. 

As stated previously there is a very general tendency in 
many localities to vary the cheese making process slightly 
in some minor respect, such as in size or shape of package, or 
as to length of time it is held in the vat, or in using a home 
made press instead of the more convenient gang presses 
commonly used in American cheese factories, and to call 
the products by a different name, either a geographical 
name, as Monterey cheese, or a fanciful name as Jack 
cheese. A business of considerable extent may be built up 
in the manufacture and sale of such products under these 
special trade names. It is of interest to compare these 
processes and products with the standard varieties, and 
note their resemblances and differences. 

(205) Granular Curds. The granular process of 
making American cheese was widely used in the early days 
of the American cheese industry. It is yet used occasionally 
when a maker wishes to finish his work earlier than usual for 
any reason, and by a very few makers who employ the 
process in every day work. 

The granular process differs from the ordinary American 
cheese process employed in Wisconsin, in that (1) the curd 
is made a little firmer by holding it longer and perhaps 
developing a little more acid before drawing the whey; and 
(2) after drawing the whey, the curd is stirred steadily to 
keep it from matting, while spreading it out to cool as rapidly 
as possible on the vat bottom. After stirring more or less 
steadily for about 20-30 minutes, the curd has become 
firmer and cooler and has little tendency to mat. It is now 
mixed with salt at the usual rate and as soon as the salt has 
dissolved, the curd is filled into the hoops and pressed. 

The granular made American cheese can usually be dis- 
tinguished from the ordinary matted curd in the market by 
the texture. The granular curd shows distinctly the sep- 



168 Cheese Making. 

arate cubes which were put into the hoop. Especially in the 
neighborhood of any small openings in the cheese, the 
separate cubes show plainly. The granular cheese is more 
apt to crumble in cutting thin slices. If pressed a little too 
cold or too lightly, so that the rind is not perfectly closed, 
the same appearance of small distinct curd particles can 
often be seen on the outer surface. 

The matting process which has largely displaced the 
granular process has advantages (1) in allowing the curd to 
be held longer in the vat before pressing, to develop more 
acid, and to work out any gas or pinholes, thus greatly 
reducing the danger of gassy cheese, which may happen 
frequently where the granular process is used regularly. 
(2) The granular process usually makes a cheese of less 
close and uniform texture. For these reasons the matting 
process is very generally considered a decided improvement 
over the granular process, in the making of American 
cheese. 

(206) Monterey Cheese: Jack Cheese. The first 
name is derived from Monterey county, California, where 
its manufacture was first taken up on a large commercial 
scale about 1916. Previous to that time, it had been made 
by Portuguese farmers in California, often from the milk of 
a single cow or small herd on the farm. It is made either 
from whole milk, or sometimes from half skim milk, and 
in the latter case becomes quite dry, so that it is grated for 
use in cooking, like Parmesan, Sap Sago, and other very dry 
skim milk cheese. 

The process employed with whole milk is practically the 
same as the granular process described above, but the curd 
is salted while yet warm, being stirred only a short time 
after drawing the whey. It is finally pressed in a cloth bag, 
giving it a peculiar shape. 

(207) Method of Making Jack Cheese.* The cheese 
is made every morning from night's and morning's milk. 
The mixed milk should not test higher than .16% acidity 
and should have a clean flavor. Standardize the milk to 
3.1 or 3.2% fat. Heat the milk to 86° F. and add y 2 to 1 % 
commercial starter (clabbered milk). Add sufficient rennet 

* Private communication to the author from Prof. H. J. Baird, University of 
Galifoi nia. 



Minor Sorts of Cheese. 169 

(about 6 oz. per 1,000 lbs. milk) to curdle the milk ready for 
cutting in 25 minutes. (Dilute the rennet about forty times 
its volume with cold water before adding.) The time for 
cutting is determined by the same method as for Cheddar, 
testing the curd for firmness. The curd is also cut in the 
same manner as for Cheddar. After cutting, the curd 
should be allowed to stand a few minutes before stirring, 
then stir gently with the hands. Stir the curd sufficiently 
during the cooking process to prevent matting. The heat 
should be applied ten minutes after cutting and the tem- 
perature raised to about 110 to 112° F. in 35 minutes or at 
the rate of about 33^ degrees in five minutes. It will take 
about 35 to 40 minutes to firm the curd after it reaches the 
maximum temperature, but the only method for determin- 
ing the time for dipping should be the firmness of the curd. 
The curd should be slightly rubbery but not so firm as curd 
for Cheddar cheese. The whey is removed and the curd 
stirred sufficiently to remove the excess whey. (Too much 
stirring injures the curd; do not handle it roughly.) Salt is 
added while the curd is warm at the rate of 3 lbs. per 1,000 lbs. 
milk and after it is thoroughly mixed and dissolved the 
curd is ready to press. 

The press cloths used for molding these cheese are made 
of heavy sheeting and are about 34 inches square. The cloths 
are laid out evenly, one over the other, and are spread over 
the top of a large open pail. Push the center down to the 
bottom of the pail leaving the edges hanging over the sides. 
Sufficient curd (about 7 lbs.) to make a six pound cheese is 
weighed out and poured into the top press cloth. The four 
corners of the cloth are caught up with the left hand, while 
with the right hand the curd is formed round and the cloth 
straightened. The cloth is now taken up tightly over the 
curd with the left hand, while the cheese is given a rolling 
motion on the table, with the right hand pressing at the 
same time to expel the whey. This twists the press cloth 
tightly over the curd, where it is tied with a string. The 
excess cloth is spread out evenly over the top of the cheese 
and it is then ready for the press. 

The cheese are pressed between two wooden planks, 
12 // xl3^ // surfaced; the length will depend upon the number 

12 



170 



Cheese Making. 



of cheese pressed or the size of the room. The first board 
should be laid with a slight slant to permit the whey to 
drain off readily. The cheese are then placed in the center 
of the board about one inch apart after which another board 
is placed on top. If necessary the cheese can be placed four 
or five layers deep if a board is placed between layers. Best 
results can be gotten by placing the boards and cheese in an 
ordinary upright cheese press. Another method is to brace 
the first board, near a wall, about three feet from the floor; 
then level with the top board a lever (2x4, 5 feet long) is 
fastened to the wall with a hinge which will allow it to be 
raised or lowered. These levers, one every four feet, are laid 
over the top board and a weight (about 100 lbs.) is fastened 
to the other end. This acts as an automatic press. The 
cheese are left in the press about fifteen hours after which 
they are removed, the press cloths taken off, and the cheese 
laid on the shelves. If the press cloth sticks to the cheese, 
pulling out pieces of cheese when removed, this is a sign that 
the surface gets too dry while in the press. Water thrown 
on the cheese occasionally or the room kept moist will prevent 
this. In about two days after removing from the press the 
cheese should be dipped in hot (200 to 220 degrees F.) paraf- 
fme and held there for 10 seconds. This will prevent shrink- 
age and give the cheese a neater appearance. 

(208) Half Skim Jack Cheese. Milk used for half 
skim Jack Cheese should test 1 .8 to 2 % fat. The night's milk 
may be skimmed and the skim milk mixed with an equal 
amount of morning's whole milk. The rate of rennet extract 
should be decreased sufficiently to curdle the milk ready for 
cutting in about 45 minutes. The cooking temperature 




Fig. 36. — Jack Cheese Pressed in Cloth (at left), 
in a Lard Pail (at right). 



Home Made Cheese Pressed 



Minor Sorts of Cheese. 171 

should be lower; about 104 to 106 degrees F., and the whey 
should be removed when the curd is about the same firmness 
as for full cream Jack. The cheese should not be paraffined 
as they are usually dried for grating purposes. 

(209A) Home-made American Cheese. In the early 
days of the cheese industry in this country, cheese was made 
at home on the farms, from the milk of a few cows, by the 
farmer or some member of his family. The question is fre- 
quently asked as to whether cheese of the American type can 
not be made successfully for home use, or for sale to neigh- 
bors, in localities where there are no cheese factories, but 
where a small quantity of milk is available. 

A family cheesemaking outfit can be rigged up at home, 
if the process is well understood, but a complete outfit to- 
gether with brief directions for making cheese at home can 
be purchased from dealers. The outfit includes a 20 gallon 
tank and stand for holding milk, a small lamp-stove for heat- 
ing the milk, a thermometer, press and hoop, supply of 
rennet tablets, cheese color, curd knife, bandages, hot iron 
test, directions, etc. It makes cheese of 10 pound size, and 
costs $25.00 or more, complete. 

Where cheese is made at home, provision for curing in a 
moderately cool place must be made. The cheese may be 
rubbed with grease on the rind to prevent cracking, and kept 
in a cool cellar, cave, or well, for curing until used. It is 
even possible to cure cheese at summer temperatures out 
of doors, but there is much loss of weight from loss of mois- 
ure and of fat, and loss of quality from drying out and de- 
velopment of strong flavors, so that such curing is not ad- 
visable. 

Very heavily salted cheese will keep better in warm 
climates, and while too tough to eat, may be grated and used 
in cooking. 

For use at farms or small factories, having no steam, self- 
heating vats can be obtained, having a small stove under the 
milk pan, which holds 200 lbs. of milk or more. 

A simple method of making cheese at home on the farm 
is as follows : Use at least two pails of fresh, sweet milk, or 
of morning's milk and night's milk mixed together, provided 
that the night's milk was promptly cooled when fresh and 



172 Cheese Making. 

kept cool, about 50 degrees F., until morning. This quantity 
of milk, about 50 lbs, will make about 5 lbs. of cheese. 

Heat the milk to about 90 degrees, using a thermometer, 
and immediately add a rennet tablet dissolved in half a glass 
of cold water. Stir the solution thoroughly through the 
milk, at 90 degrees, and cover the pan so as to keep the milk 
from cooling. Notice by the clock the time when the rennet 
was added, and watch closely to see when the milk first 
thickens, which may take 5 to 15 minutes. Then cover and 
leave the milk about 23^ or 3 times as long, that is 20 to 45 
minutes, until firmly thickened. Cut the curd with a long 
bladed knife back and forth making a checkered pattern 
with half inch squares. Then cut the curd cross ways, using 
a bent piece of tin or a wire frame, such as is used for toasting 
bread. See that the curd is all cut up into pieces no larger 
than Y2 inch cubes. Stir the curd gently by hand, or with a 
large spoon, being careful to keep it in as even sized pieces 
as possible. After stirring about 15 minutes, begin to heat 
again, stirring all the time to prevent scorching the bottom. 
In half an hour, raise the temperature to about 100 degrees, 
but no higher. Stir frequently after heating, to keep the 
curd from sticking together to form large lumps. After half 
an hour, when the curd is firmer, it may be heated to 110 or 
105 degrees. When quite firm, about 13^ or 2 hours after 
cutting the curd, pour it on a cloth to drain. After draining 
has about stopped, break up the curd by hand or cut it into 
nut sized pieces with a knife. Stir about 3 ounces of salt 
into the curd, adding it in three portions, and mixing thor- 
oughly. About 15 to 30 minutes later, when the salt is well 
dissolved, the curd may be filled into a flaring lard pail, or 
similar metal can, from which the bottom has been removed, 
or with a number of holes punched in the bottom for drain- 
age, to serve as a cheese hoop. The hoop is set on a piece of 
burlap cloth in place in the press before filling with curd, 
and afterward another cloth and a wooden cover are put in 
the hoop on top of the curd, and pressure is applied. The ob- 
ject in pressing is to close up the curd into a solid mass, and 
especially to close the rind or surface perfectly, so that no 
openings are visible. Without a perfectly closed rind, the 
cheese is apt to become moldy inside during the curing 



Minor Sorts of Cheese. 173 

process. The pressure may be applied by means of a screw 
fruit press, or cider press, or by means of a plank and weight. 
For this sort of home made press, set the hoop on the floor 
near a wall, nail a cleat to the wall about 3 inches above 
the top of the hoop. Put the end of a six foot plank under 
the cleat, and over the wooden block covering the curd. 
Hang a pail of stones on the outer end of the plank, and 
leave until morning, well covered to protect the cheese from 
flies, rats, dogs, rain, etc. After pressing for an hour or two, 
take out the cheese, wrap it in a piece of cheese cloth, and 
put back in the hoop, and leave it over night. After the 
cheese is taken from the press next day, place it in a cool, 
well ventilated cellar, and in a few days when the rind is dry 
but before it begins to crack, grease the rind well, wrap it in 
a cloth bandage, and hang it in a basket in a cool cellar, 
cave, or well, to cure. The cheese may be rubbed and greased 
again every few days to keep it from becoming moldy on 
the surface, and in four weeks' time at about 60 degrees it 
should be ready to eat but is better if older. 

In cutting cheese, keep the cut surface flat and smooth, 
and turn it down on a clean plate to prevent drying out, or 
cover it with cloth wet with salt brine, or simply grease the 
cut surface with butter, each time it is cut. If it gets moldy, 
this is due to being kept in too damp a place. 

Home made cheese may also be made and pressed like 
Jack cheese (207). 

(209B) Pineapple Cheese. This is a rather firm make 
of American cheese, put up in pineapple form, and made for 
many years by one or two eastern factories. The curd after 
pressing is hung up in a net bag, so that the cord of the net 
make an imprint on the surface of the cheese. A neater 
appearance can be made with a corrugated metal mold 
instead of a net bag. 

(210) Skim Milk American Cheese. Cheese prices must 
go unusually high, in order that the income from the making 
of skim milk cheese at a creamery may exceed the feeding 
value of the skim milk for live stock. The cost for equip- 
ment, supplies and labor is about the same as for making 
whole milk American cheese; the market is limited, very few 



174 Cheese Making. 

dealers handling skim cheese; and the demand from consum- 
ers is small. 

Small factories can not keep both a cheesemaker and a 
buttermaker busy, and large creameries are likely to under- 
take the manufacture of skim cheese only under exceptional 
conditions. 

Viewed from the standpoint of the dairy industry, the 
making of skim milk cheese is likely to be a detriment, un- 
less safeguards are provided to avoid the suspicion that un- 
scrupulous dealers substitute skim cheese for whole milk 
cheese in the markets. 

(211) Laws Relating to Skim Milk Cheese. Tabu- 
lar statements of the standards for dairy products estab- 
lished by law in different states are published by the Bureau 
of Animal Husbandry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, 
D. C. In the majority of cases cheese containing less than 
50 per cent of fat in the dry matter are classed as skim milk 
cheese. 

While some states require skim cheese to be so labeled 
on the bandage, yet such labels are readily removed by 
unscrupulous dealers, and consumers are always liable to 
suspect that any cheese from such states are made in part 
or wholly from skim milk, and have been fraudulently sub- 
stituted for whole milk cheese in the market. 

Since 1898, in the state of Wisconsin, the law has re- 
quired that all skim or part skim cheese shall be made 10 
inches in diameter and 9 inches in height, so as to be readily 
recognized and distinguished in the markets from whole 
milk cheese, which are never made in this size and shape. 
As a result, no skim milk cheese have been made at either 
American, brick, Limburger or Swiss cheese factories in 
Wisconsin for many years, and the state's industry is fully 
protected by this law both from fraud and suspicion of 
fraud. No more effective method of distinguishing and 
labeling skim milk cheese could be devised than the one 
just described. 

Another equally effective method of unmistakably mar- 
keting skim milk cheese, devised at the Wisconsin station 
in 1918, consists of adding 1 ounce of cheese color per thou- 
sand pounds of milk in the vat, to about 1 /10 of the vat 



Minor Sorts of Cheese. 



175 



content, just after adding rennet, and before the milk has 
begun to thicken. For this purpose, a movable partition is 
temporarily placed in the milk near one end of the vat after 
adding rennet, and the regular cheese color is stirred into 
the small portion of the milk behind the partition. After 
all the milk has thickened, the partition is carefully lifted 
out. Thus without extra cost or trouble the cheese is ef- 
fectively labeled with a speckled pattern through the inte- 
rior which is striking, attractive, not at all repulsive in ap- 
pearance, and which can never be removed from the cheese. 
The colored curd can also be made in a separate vat. 




Fig. 37. — Movable Partition For Dividing Cheese Vat. The sheet metal 
flanges on the sides and bottom of the partition are bent to fit the vat snugly. The 
partition remains firmly in place while the color is being stirred in, and can be 
lifted out with ease after the milk has thickened. 



It is possible that skim milk cheese thus marked might be 
made in any convenient size and shape used for whole milk 
cheese, if permitted by law, without danger of fraudulent 
substitution. The laws relating to whole milk cheese, lim- 
iting the moisture content to 40% or less, do not apply to 
skim milk cheese, as these regularly contain over 40% 
moisture. 

(212) Methods of Making Skim Milk American 
Cheese. In making whole milk cheese, the whey is drawn 
when the curd is firm and when the whey acidity is about 
.18%, corresponding to milk acidity of .24%. In making 
skim milk cheese, the curd becomes firm much faster, so 



176 Cheese Making. 

that it is necessary to set the milk at a higher acidity, in 
order to draw under the same conditions of acidity and firm- 
ness as with whole milk cheese. 

With separator skim milk to start with, this may be ripen- 
ed to .24% with 5 to 8 lbs. of starter, and set at 84-86 degrees 
with 33^2 ounces of rennet extract, so as to cut in 30 minutes. 
After cutting, the curd is stirred by hand for a time, with- 
out raising the temperature, and a part of the whey is 
drawn out. When the curd has become firm enough, as 
judged by the feeling of handful, so that it can be piled up 
on the bottom of the vat, and not run down like wet mortar, 
and so that the curd will drain and mat well without col- 
lecting around the strainer and clogging it, the remainder 
of the whey is drawn, and the curd is piled up to mat. 

If the milk is sweeter than directed above, a longer time 
will be required to get the curd firm before drawing the 
whey. 

The piled curd mats rapidly, and is soon cut into blocks 
and turned. Half an hour after drawing whey, the curd can 
be milled without danger of shattering, and a few minutes 
later it is salted, and as soon as the salt has dissolved, the 
curd is hooped. 

Just after milling, and before salting, the curd may be 
rinsed with cold water to cool it and prevent it from becom- 
ing too dry. One to 1 H lbs. of salt per 100 of curd is used, 
and the pressed cheese should be paraffined as soon as the 
surface is dry. They may be ripened for 30 days at about 
70 degrees. 

With half skimmed milk, containing about 2 per cent 
fat, the process is intermediate between that for whole milk 
and for separator skim milk. With 2 or 3 lbs. of starter per 
100 of milk, it is ripened to about .22% and set to cut in 
20-30 minutes, at 84-86 degrees. 

After cutting, the vat is gradually heated to about 92 
F., and as soon as the curd is elastic and drains well, which 
may take 30 minutes or longer, the whey is drawn at about 
.18% acidity, and the curd is matted. It is cut into strips 
and turned as usual. When well matted and meaty in tex- 
ture, as with whole milk cheese, it is milled, salted with 
1K~2% of salt, and hooped as usual. 



Minor Sorts of Cheese. 177 

As already stated, there is at present no way by which 
skim milk cheese can be made or kept in exactly the shape 
and size required by law in Wisconsin, on account of shrink- 
age, etc. 

(213) New York Soaked Curd Cheese. Soaked curd 
cheese are made in New York state, often from partly 
skimmed milk, by the methods described above, with this 
difference that after milling, the curd is covered with cool 
water at 65-70 degrees, and allowed to soak for 5-10 min- 
utes or longer, during which time they absorb some of the 
water and retain it, so as to produce a larger yield, but an 
inferior quality of product. After soaking, the water is 
run out, the cheese are salted and pressed as usual. 

(214) Sage Cheese. Sage cheese is a favorite cheese 
with some people and is manufactured to a limited extent 
in certain localities in this country. It is made in exactly 
the same way as common American Cheddar cheese, with 
the exception that a sage flavor is imparted to it, preferably 
by adding sage leaves to the curd, three ounces being suf- 
ficient for the curd from 1,000 lbs. of milk. The sage should 
be weighed, all stems picked out and the leaves finely pow- 
dered and added to the curd just before salting.* 

(215) Pimiento Cheese. In a similar way, canned 
pimiento is sometimes added to American cheese curd after 
salting, so that the red color is distributed unevenly through- 
out the cheese and the flavor is noticeable in all parts after 
curing. The pimiento is a sweet pepper, with a fleshy pod, 
grown in Spain, California, Ohio, and in a few other localities 
It is canned like other fruit for the market. 

(216A) Club Cheese and Similar Preparations. 
Club cheese is made by running well cured American cheese 
through a grinder or mill, reducing it to a smooth paste, and 
mixing in a certain amount of butter with or without other 
flavoring materials. About 1 ounce of butter to a pound of 
cheese is a fair proportion, but somewhat more or less can 
be used. 

The stronger flavored and older cheese are preferred for 
making club cheese. An old cheese partly damaged by mold 
in the interior and bought at a reduced price can be cleaned 

* Michigan Spec. Bull. 21; Farmer's Bull. No. 202. 



178 Cheese Making. 

by cutting out the moldy portions and the remainder is 
often very satisfactory for club cheese. The product is put 
up in small jars. 

Club cheese containing more or less butter is often 
flavored with pepper, either black pepper or a red pepper as 
cayenne, pimiento, or paprika. If colored green and with a 
peppery flavor, it is known as chili cheese, and by a variety 
of trade names. 

(216B) Canned Cheese. During the recent years, at 
least one American cheese' factory has put up fresh curd as 
taken from the press, in cans which were then sealed air 
tight. As no preservative or heating was used, the cans 
frequently swelled from an accumulation of gas, which, how- 
ever, did not indicate that the cheese had spoiled. 

Other methods have also been devised commercially by 
which cheese are sealed in cans, in a thoroughly sterilized 
condition, so as to keep without swelling, and in good condi- 
tion for a long period. These products, put up under various 
proprietary names are well suited for use by travellers, and 
for table use, as they come in individual portions as well as 
larger packages and there is no rind, or other waste. 

(217) Cheese from Pasteurized Milk. The impor- 
tance of pasteurizing milk for drinking purposes, as a protec- 
tion against the spread of typhoid fever, tuberculosis, and 
other diseases is well recognized. In the leading dairy states, 
the pasteurization of the by-products of cheese factories and 
creameries is required by law, before these materials may be 
used as feed for farm stock, to prevent the spread of tuber- 
culosis, etc. It has been demonstrated that when milk in 
the cheese vat was intentionally infected with tuberculosis 
germs and then made into cheese, the cheese so made was 
capable of infecting guinea pigs to which it was fed seven 
months later. In view of these and other facts, authorities 
have recommended that milk for cheese making should be 
pasteurized. 

On account of the extra expense for buying pasteurizing 
machinery and extra labor for operating it, it does not seem 
likely that any pasteurization process is likely to be adopted 
by small, one-man cheese factories, unless required by law. 



Minor Sorts of Cheese. 



179 



While experimental trials of methods of making cheese 
from pasteurized milk have been made at several Experi- 
ment Stations, the most extensive experiments and com- 
mercial trials have been made by the Wisconsin Station. 

As the pasteurization of milk renders it incapable of 
coagulating like raw milk with rennet extract, some special 
treatment is necessary to correct this fault. For this pur- 
pose at the New York (Ithaca) College of Agriculture, milk 
was heated to 165 and cooled to 90 degrees, and then treated 
with 2 cc. of 25% calcium chloride solution and 2 to 
3 pounds of lactic starter per 100 lbs. of milk. Rennet 
extract at the rate of 3 ounces per 1,000 lbs. of milk was 
then added and the milk thickened first in about 5 minutes 
and was ready to cut in 40 minutes. 

At the Wisconsin Experiment Station, the following 
method was developed. The milk pasteurized at 165 and 
cooled to about 75 or lower, was treated with enough 
N/1 strength hydrochloric acid to raise its acidity to .25%, 
calculated as lactic acid. Three-fourths per cent of starter 
was then added and after heating to 85 rennet extract is 
added at the rate of 2 ounces per thousand pounds. The 
particular feature of this process is that the acidity required 
is gained instantly by the addition of hydrochloric acid, and 
as a result the rest of the process can be carried on according 
to a fixed time schedule, which has been found very helpful 
in a large factory where one cheesemaker and half a dozen 
helpers did the work. 

The time schedule for making cheese by the Wisconsin 
Method, after pasteurizing and acidulating, is as follows: 



Operation 



Total time after 
adding rennet 




Adding rennet 

Cutting the curd 

Beginning to heat 

Turning off steam 

Placing rack, after drawing whey 

Milling the curd 

Salting the curd 

Hooping the curd 



180 Cheese Making. 

The Wisconsin method of making pasteurized milk 
cheese was given practical trials by the Station, making 
14,394 lbs. of cheese on 142 days during 1912 and 1913, at 
four commercial Wisconsin factories in four counties. In 
addition, during 1914 and 1915, a firm of Chicago milk 
dealers manufactured 1,113,000 lbs. of pasteurized milk 
cheese by this process at three of their plants, as a means of 
utilizing surplus milk, with good success. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

DETAILS OF AMERICAN CHEESEMAKING 
PROCESS. 

Intake Work. The inspection and testing of milk at 
the cheese factory intake, has been described in Chap- 
ter III. 

(218) Ripening the Milk. As soon as the milk is all 
in, it is tested for ripeness and heated to the cheesemaking 
temperature, usually 86 degrees. With the necessary amount 
of starter added, it is ripened to the desired acidity, if not 
already ripe enough. 

The best acidity at which to add rennet to milk is a 
matter on which makers do not always agree, but after 
working at a factory for a few days, the maker will choose 
what seems best to him. With ordinary Holstein milk, he 
may prefer to add rennet at a milk acidity of .165%, and 
thus allow a longer time for cooking and firming the curd, 
than if set at a higher acidity. Other makers may prefer 
to ripen milk to .175% and a few will ripen to .19% or .20%, 
thus spending more time in ripening and shortening the 
time for getting the curd firm in the whey before drawing 
the whey. 

It may often happen also that the milk may come in at 
a higher acidity than desired, so that the maker must do 
the best he can with it, add rennet as soon as possible and 
work rapidly. 

In starting work at a new factory at the beginning of 
the season, the milk may be ripened to about .175% before 
adding rennet, and its behavior watched closely afterward, 
from which the maker may decide to ripen differently on 
the following day. 

(219) Keeping a Make Room Record. Cheesemakers, 
especially young makers, are strongly urged to get a blank 
book about 5 by 8 inches, and keep a daily record of the 
methods used with each vat of milk. The notes should 



182 Cheese Making. 

contain the amount of milk in the vat, and the weight of 
green cheese taken from the hoops or the weight of cheese 
when boxed for shipment, thus giving some knowledge of 
the yield obtained for comparison with the milk fat test, 
etc., and other days' yields. 

The amount of starter and the time of adding it; the 
ripeness test of the milk when all in and when set with 
rennet; the proportions of color and of rennet used and the 
time when adding rennet, cutting curd, beginning to heat, 
turning off steam and final temperature of vat may all be 
jotted down with a pencil as the work is being done. The 
different tests for acid in whey or curd and time when the 
whey is drawn, whether the curd was stirred, or rinsed 
before matting, the time of milling and of salting and the 
proportion of salt used. 

The advantages of keeping a record are that if the 
cheese do not turn out well, it is possible for the maker to 
figure out what should have been done differently and to get 
advice from another party as to changes in method. The 
notes may well include any unusual occurrences, such as 
"warm night," "patrons later than usual at the intake," 
"milk riper than usual," "milk bad flavored," "defect in 
equipment delayed work," etc. 

(220) Adding Color. Cheese color is commonly added 
to the milk at the rate of about Y± ounce per thousand 
pounds in summer, or 1 ounce per thousand in winter. 
When cows are on grass, the milk has nearly enough color 
naturally. White or uncolored cheese are made only when 
the factory has received an order for such cheese in advance 
and when not specified as white, it is assumed that cheese 
will be colored. 

Where the rennet test is used at a factory, the color 
should be added to the milk before the first rennet test is 
made, to avoid having lumps of white curd from the rennet 
test mixed through the colored cheese. 

Where the acidimeter is used in testing the ripeness of 
milk, it is better not to add color to the vat until the milk is 
fully ripened and ready to add rennet, because the cheese 
color in milk gives it a slight reddish tinge, so that the end 
point of the acidimeter test is not so readily seen. 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 183 

Color may be added directly to the milk in the vat with- 
out first diluting with water. In stirring in color, it is well to 
note in some way how much stirring is necessary to dis- 
tribute the color evenly, by observing how many minutes are 
spent in stirring, or how many times the rake is pushed 
across the vat, or how many times the maker walks the 
length of the vat before the color appears to be evenly mixed. 
This gives a clear indication as to how long the milk should 
be stirred after adding rennet extract, which is the next step. 

(221) Adding Rennet. Rennet extract at the rate of 
3 or 4 ounces per thousand pounds of milk is measured in a 
graduate. Small amounts of rennet may be measured, when 
needed, in cubic centimeters, remembering that 1 ounce 
equals about 30 cc. A pipette, burette, or 100 cc. cylinder 
may be employed. 

The measured rennet extract or pepsin solution or a mix- 
ture is poured first into some clean cool water. The quantity 
of water for 5,000 lbs. of milk may be one or two pails, equal 
to Yi or 1 % of the milk. After mixing the extract through 
the water, set the pail down near the vat. Set the milk in 
motion either with the agitators, or by stirring crossways 
with the rake. (Stirring lengthways is likely to cause high 
waves, and throw the milk over the end of the vat.) While 
the milk is in motion, pour from the pail into the middle of 
the vat, while walking briskly along the side, so as distribute 
the extract evenly from one end to the other. Quickly take 
up the rake, if used, and stir again across the vat, while 
walking 2 or 3 times along the length of the vat, so that the 
rennet is evenly distributed in the milk as quickly as possible 
and within 2 or 3 minutes after the addition was made. The 
agitator may be run while adding rennet, instead of using the 
rake, if preferred. 

Rapid work is needful, because the milk is likely to begin 
to thicken in 8 minutes after adding rennet, and if three 
minutes is required to complete the stirring, there will be 
only five minutes left during which the milk must become 
perfectly quiet, before the first visible thickening occurs. If 
milk is moving or is stirred after it has begun to thicken, 
there is likely to be loss of fat in the whey, dry texture and 
loss of yield. 



184 Cheese Making. 

During the thickening, for the same reason, the. milk 
should not be jarred by anyone leaning against the vat, by 
heavy walking across the floor, or by moving machinery, 
etc. Cover the vat to keep the milk surface warm. 

(222) Top Stirring. If milk will require more than 8 
minutes before first visible thickening, it may be top stirred 
by running lightly over the surface of the milk with a rake 
or dipper about 3 or 4 minutes-before it is expected to thicken, 
to stir down cream, but so as to allow the milk to become 
quiet again, before thickening occurs. Before top stirring, 
make sure that thickening has not already begun. 

(223) First Visible Thickening. It is an advantage, 
in many cases, to note by the watch the exact time when 
rennet was added, and again the time when the milk shows 
the first sign of becoming thick. The first sign of thickening 
can be detected either (1) by lowering a horizontally held 
thermometer or finger below the surface of the milk, which 
will cause a permanent depression in the surface, as soon as 
thickening occurs, or (2) by dipping a glass tube or glass 
plate into the milk at short intervals, lifting it out quickly 
and looking to see whether the film of milk adhering to the 
glass contains small granular particles, which will be visible 
as soon as coagulation begins. 

If a vat of milk requires, for example, 10 minutes after 
adding rennet before the first visible thickening occurs, the 
maker can expect that the curd will be ready to cut in about 
2 3/£ or 3 times 10 minutes, that is, in 25 or 30 minutes after 
rennet was added. By knowing this rule, he can go ahead 
with other work, and return to the vat at just about the right 
time for cutting. 

(224) When Curd is Thick Enough to Cut. If a curd 
is cut when very soft, the whey which separates is likely to 
be somewhat white and milky, showing an unnecessary loss 
of fat and perhaps of casein. Also a very soft curd is more 
likely to be broken and mashed during the stirring after 
cutting, causing further loss. 

Before cutting, cheesemakers split the curd with a finger 
or a thermometer, and look to see if the whey in the break 
is clear or milky, also whether the break shows a lot of finely 
broken curd which sticks to the finger, or not. If well thick- 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 185 

ened, the whey is clear, and no small broken pieces of curd 
stick to the finger. 

Other tests may be used just before cutting the curd. 
Some makers lay the back of the hand on the curd close to 
one side of the vat, and by a sideward motion try to pull the 
curd away from the tin. If the curd stretches, but does not 
separate from the tin, it is too soft to cut. If it splits away 
from the tin readily, it is firm enough to cut. 

By laying the back of the hand on the curd in the middle 
of the vat, and pressing down, the firmness of the curd can 
be judged. On moving the hand up and down, so as to shake 
the curd and cause ripples to move across its surface, it will 
be noticed that when the curd is quite soft, the ripples will 
travel several feet across the curd surface, but when quite 
firm and ready to cut, the ripples will not move farther than 
one foot from the hand. Each maker prefers one of these 
tests or another, and the student should try all of them. 

(225) Cutting Curd With the Horizontal Knife. 
Rest the upper end of the horizontal blade or wire curd 
knife against the inside upper edge of the vat 
end; with the knife held nearly horizontal, 
"swing the knife downward into the curd, with 
a motion like that of a pendulum falling from 
a nearly horizontal to a perpendicular posi- 
tion, the knife stopping against the end of 
the vat, and just touching the vat bottom. 
In this way the knife is inserted with a cutting 
motion and without breaking or mashing 
the curd. The second movement of this 
knife carries it along the length of the vat, 
close to the side, to the opposite end. The 
third movement swings the knife around (like 
a door) in the curd, ready to move next down 
the length of the vat again toward the first 
end. Each lengthwise cut is made as close as 
possible to the edge of the preceding cut, so 
that no uncut curd is left between them. 

In this way, turning the knife at the ends of the vat, and 
cutting forward and backward the long way of the vat, the 
curd is all cut into horizontal layers, like blankets on a bed, 




Fig. 38A— Hori- 
zontal Wire Curd 
Knife. 



13 



186 



Cheese Making. 



and the knife is finally taken out by a pendulum-like motion 
the reverse of that with which it entered the vat. 

When making the last cut lengthwise of the vat, it may 
happen that the curd mass is slightly wider than the curd 
knife. In such case, cut next to the side of the vat, leaving 
a narrow strip of uncut curd between this last cut and the 
preceding one. 

(226) Cutting Curd With Vertical Knife. Next in- 
sert the vertical knife into the vat at one corner without 
mashing the curd and cut across the width of the vat. The 

knife is taken out at the end of each cut, 
moved along its width toward the right and 
put into the curd again. The position of the 
knife while moving across the vat is straight 
up, but while going in or out of the curd, the 
knife is tipped away from the side of the vat, 
so that the cross bar at the bottom end of 
the knife does not mash curd while moving 
up or down. 

After cutting crossways of the vat with the 
vertical knife, the curd is next cut length- 
ways with the same knife and in the same 
manner. Three-eighths inch wire knives have 
largely replaced the 3^ inch blade knives in 
recent years, being much lighter in weight, 
and with proper care the wires seldom break. 
The object of cutting is to divide the curd 
into small uniform cubes. 

(227) Stirring Curd After Cutting. Very soon after 
cutting, test the whey for acidity. If the cubes are left 
quiet, in contact with each other, after cutting, they will 
begin to stick together again, forming lumps of larger size, 
and when stirred later these lumps will break up into irregu- 
lar pieces of all shapes and sizes. It is necessary therefore 
to stir the vat enough, beginning very soon after cutting, to 
retain the curd in cubes of uniform shape and size. The 
stirring should be begun with a slow motion of the maker's 
washed arms and hands, reaching down through the curd to 
the bottom of the vat, fingers together, starting at one end of 
the vat and moving in long strokes across the width of the vat, 




Fig. 38J3. — Ver- 
tical Wire Curd 
Knife. 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 187 

toward the other end. The object at first is to move each 
cube slightly away from its neighbors, so that they will not 
stick together. This stirring should be continued steadily, 
as long as necessary, but at the same time it must be done 
gently, not violently, to avoid mashing the curd cubes, and 
to prevent a high loss of fat in the whey. With care, the 
fat loss can be kept low. 

During the first 15 minutes of stirring, before heat- 
ing begins, the curd should be loosened from the tin surface 
of the vat at all points, especially at the bottom, corners, 
and upper edge of the milk, to prevent the curd from stick- 
ing fast and being overheated, after heating begins. 

After stirring by hand for the first few minutes, the rake 
may be put in, or the agitator started, just before beginning 
to heat. With a well thickened curd, some makers start the 




Fig. 39. — Mechanical Curd Agitators Save Much Time and Labor. 
Revolving paddles hang in the vat and stir the contents. 

agitator immediately after cutting, especially in factories 
where the agitator is provided with a slow speed (6 or 8 
R. P. M.) for use at first, and a higher speed (10-12 R. P. M.) 
for use during and after heating. 

The cleanly cheesemaker will not forget to dip a rake or 
other utensils in scalding water just before putting it into 
the milk, and to wash his hands and arms before using 
them for stirring. 

(228) Heating Up the Vat. After the curd has shrunk 
and settled somewhat below the level of the whey (which 
may take 15-20 minutes if slow working, or 5-10 minutes 
if fast working), the heating is begun, raising the tempera- 
ture 5 or 6 degrees during the first 10 minutes, and 9 or 10 
degrees during the next 10 minutes, until the desired tem- 
perature, usually 100-102, is reached. 

The stirring must continue without stopping during the 
heating, to prevent part of the curd from remaining on the 
vat bottom, thus being heated too high. 



188 Cheese Making. 

After the vat is heated up, the stirring must be contin- 
ued for 15-30 minutes to keep the curd cubes from uniting 
to form lumps. Any lumps formed should be broken in 
two by hand. After the curd becomes firmer, it is not so 
likely to become lumpy, and stirring may be stopped for a 
few minutes at a time, if desired. To stir a large vat of 
curd with a rake, and keep it free from lumps, requires con- 
siderable strength and skill. Where the agitator is used, it 
may be run continuously, if desired, until the whey is drawn. 

(229) Uniformity in a Vat of Curd. The cheese- 
maker's aim should be to keep all parts of the curd in the 
vat in uniform condition in all respects, so far as possible, 
that is, to keep the cubes of uniform size, avoid irregular 
cutting, or the production of a lot of very small or very 
large sized curd pieces or lumps, also to keep the tempera- 
ture uniform in all parts of the vat. If the closed steam 
valve leaks slightly, a little steam entering the jacket will 
heat some parts of the milk or curd hotter than desired, 
which should be avoided. 

If the steam pipe, between the valve and the vat, con- 
tains a short length of steam hose, or a hose coupling, or a 
lever union, by which the connection with the vat can be 
quickly broken without trouble, all danger from steam leak- 
ing into the jacket is avoided. 

(230) Conditions Affecting the Separation of Whey 
from Curd. In milk containing 87% of moisture and 2J^% 
of casein, there are about 35 lbs. of water to 1 lb. of casein. 
In whole milk American cheese of average composition, 
there are about 1 3^2 to \% lbs. of moisture per pound of 
casein. 

The separation of whey from curd, by which the mois- 
ture content of the curd is reduced, begins at the time the 
curd is cut and goes on very rapidly at first, but more slowly 
as time passes. For example,- in one case, 100 lbs. of curd 
lost 32 lbs. of whey during the first half hour after cutting, 
20 lbs. during the next hour, and 10 lbs. during the next 
hour, before the curd was matted. 

Immediately after the whey was drawn from the vat 
and the curd piled to mat, the curd gave up whey again 
more rapidly, losing 10 lbs. in 15 minutes, 3 lbs. the next 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 189 

15 minutes, and 4 lbs. during the next hour, before the curd 
was milled. 

The curd after milling continued to lose whey slowly, 
the amount being about 4 lbs. in 2 hours, before the curd 
was salted. 

After salting, the separation of whey from curd was again 
hastened slightly by the action of the salt, and of course 
there were further losses in pressing and curing. 

(231) Proportion of Rennet Used. It is well known 
that milk thickens more quickly when a large proportion 
of rennet extract is used, but after the milk has thickened 
and the curd is cut, the curd gives up moisture at the same 
rate whether more or less rennet was added to the milk. 

Where milk is overripe, enough rennet should be used to 
secure rapid coagulation, so that the curd can be cut with- 
out loss of time, but the rate of whey separation after cut- 
ting is independent of the proportion of rennet used. 

Size of Curd Cubes. The smaller the cubes or pieces 
into which the curd is cut, the faster the whey will separate 
after cutting. For example, four vats of the same lot of 
milk were thickened alike with rennet, but cut with differ- 
ent knives into cubes A, Z A- X A an d % A inch, respectively, 
on the edge. The four vats were handled alike, and in 2}/£ 
hours the curds contained 49%, 53%, 58%, and 70% of 
moisture. These differences in moisture content were due 
only to the different sizes of the cubes in the four vats. 

(232) Effect, of Temperature on Separation of 
Whey. A curd set at 86 degrees and kept at 86 after cut- 
ting contained 73% of moisture 2 A hours after cutting, 
but another vat of curd from the same lot of milk, heated 
to 104 degrees after cutting, contained only 64% of moist- 
ure 2^2 hours after cutting. The heating of the vat, prop- 
erly done after cutting, helps to expel moisture and make 
the curd firm. 

(233) Effect of Acidity on Rate of Whey Separation. 
In general, the separation of whey from curd goes on faster 
if there is a moderate amount of acid in the milk and curd, 
than if they are perfectly sweet. This fact is made use of 
in cheesemaking. If a cheesemaker wishes to retain more 
moisture than usual in American cheese, he can do so by 



190 Cheese Making. 

setting the milk somewhat sweeter than usual, with less 
ripening, and with less starter or no starter. 

If milk is quite ripe, or slightly overripe, in the American 
cheese vat, the curd will give up whey faster and become 
firm faster for this reason, thus helping the maker to get 
his curd firm before the acidity has become too high. The 
cheesemaker may be obliged also to use some other special 
means to hasten the separation of whey, such as cutting 
the curd finer, heating it higher, stirring it on the vat bot- 
tom after drawing whey, before matting, etc., to avoid 
sour cheese. 

The effect of acidity in hastening whey separation from 
curd is seen in making other kinds of cheese also, as for 
example, in making Neufchatel cheese, where with unripened 
milk it is a long and tedious process to get the curd sufficient- 
ly dry, but with ripened milk, handled alike in all other 
respects, the curd drains rapidly and freely, and is finally 
pressed dry in a half an hour or less. Many other examples 
and proofs could be cited to show the importance of proper 
ripeness or acidity of milk as a factor in hastening separation 
of whey. 

(234) Effect of Stirring a Curd in the Whey on 
Moisture Content. The purpose of stirring a curd in the 
whey was stated in section 227. A curd which is not stirred 
enough soon becomes lumpy and the lumps retain more 
moisture than the small cubes. A curd which is stirred too 
roughly is apt to be broken into small pieces or fine grains, 
and in so far as this occurs, it must be expected that the small 
pieces will give up moisture faster than the regular sized 
cubes, and thus make the cheese drier and firmer. 

If a curd is properly stirred, so as to permit neither the 
formation of curd lumps, nor of small broken particles, the 
curd gives up moisture at the normal rate. After the curd is 
sufficiently firm so that danger of becoming lumpy or broken 
is past, the moisture content is not reduced more rapidly by 
either (a) continued stirring as with an agitator, or (b) inter- 
mittent stirring done with a rake or by hand. While it seems 
possible that there might be some difference in the moisture 
content of curds, due to the method of stirring, as by hand, 
by a rake, or by an agitator, yet a number of carefully con- 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 191 

ducted experiments at Wisconsin showed that there is no 
noticeable difference. 

(235) Effect of Pressure on Separation of Whey 
from Curd. When 500 lbs. of curd is piled 5 inches deep 
on the bottom of the vat, after drawing the whey, the layer 
of curd 1 inch thick at the bottom of the pile is under a 
pressure of 400 lbs. due to the curd above it. This pressure 
greatly hastens the separation of whey from the curd for a 
short time. 

This action does not occur until after the whey has been 
drawn from the vat, and the curd is piled in the air. As long 
as the whey in the vat surrounds the curd cubes, the whey 
buoys up the curd, so that it presses very lightly on the bot- 
tom of the vat when it settles. A cube of curd which weighs 
1 gram in air, weighs only about 1 /43 of a gram when sur- 
rounded by whey. If the 500 lbs. of curd in the vat is al- 
lowed to settle to the bottom, before the whey is drawn, it 
exerts a pressure of about 1 /43 of 500 lbs., or 11 to 12 lbs. on 
the bottom of the vat. When the whey is drawn, the lifting 
effect of the whey is lost, and the curd in the air now exerts 
its full pressure of 500 lbs. on the vat bottom, and on the 
lowest layer of curd. Drawing the whey and piling the curd 
for matting is thus one way to apply a certain amount of 
pressure, which greatly aids in expelling moisture from the 
curd. 

(236) Effect of Stirring a Curd in the Air Before 
Matting. If we remember that a curd gives up very little 
or no whey while in a large mass before cutting, but gives up 
whey very rapidly after cutting, it is easy to understand that 
curd in small cubes on the vat bottom, after drawing whey 
and just before matting, gives up moisture more readily than 
it does when in a single large mass just after matting. The 
effect of stirring the curd to prevent matting has the effect 
of keeping the curd in the form of small cubes longer, and 
in this manner permits more complete separation of mois- 
ture, producing a dryer curd and cheese. Stirring the curd 
to delay matting, after drawing the whey, is an effective 
means of rapidly firming any curd, which is too moist when 
the whey is drawn. Possibly the slight pressure exerted on 
curd in stirring may help a little. 



192 Cheese Making. 

(237) Proportions of Fat in Milk. Careful experi- 
ments at the Wisconsin Station, not yet published, have 
shown clearly that with two vats of whole milk, containing 
different percentages of fat, as from Jersey and Holstein 
cows, and handled exactly alike in making cheese, the ratio 
of moisture to casein is the same, and independent of the 
fat content of the milk. Other experiments in which whole 
milk and part skim milk were compared appeared to indicate 
that the casein in a skim milk curd gives up moisture more 
rapidly than in a whole milk curd. This difference is being 
studied further. 

As fat is not soluble in water, it is clear that the water 
in cheese is carried by the casein, and the casein, more than 
the fat in normal milk, affects the rate of separation of whey 
from curd and the final moisture content of the cheese. 

(238) Watching the Development of Firmness and 
of Acid in Curd. Two important changes go on in the 
curd, after cutting, both of which should be watched closely 
by the cheesemaker. These are (1) the separation of whey 
from curd, by which the curd becomes dryer and firmer as 
time passes, and (2) the development of acid by the bacteria 
in the curd, shown by the hot iron test on the curd, and by 
the acidimeter applied to the whey immediately after cutting 
and again at intervals. 

(a) Under the best conditions these two, acid and firm- 
ness, develop in the curd at the same time, and the cheese- 
maker tries to have them do so, in order that at the time the 
whey is drawn, the curd may have the right acidity and the 
right firmness. 

(b) If the milk is overripe when received, or is ripened 
too long before adding rennet, or if too much starter is added, 
the acidity will develop faster than the firmness, and when 
the acidity is at .17 or .19% the curd will yet be softer than 
is desirable at the time of drawing whey. The whey should 
be drawn, and the curd firmed rapidly by special methods. 

(c) 'If the milk is sweeter than usual, or too little starter 
is used, the curd may become firm before it shows as much 
acid as desired by the maker. In this case, the whey should 
be drawn and the curd matted, and kept warm in the vat for 
several hours, in order to develop the proper acidity before 
milling or salting. 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 193 

(239) Special Methods For Rapidly Firming Curd 
from Overripe Milk. When it is known in advance that 
the milk is riper than usual, the process may be varied in one 
or more of the following ways, to avoid an acid or sour 
cheese : 

(1) Use little or no starter. 

(2) Set the vat as soon as possible, after receiving and 
heating. 

(3) Set the vat to cut in a short time, 20 to 30 minutes. 

(4) Cut the curd finer than usual, either by using finer 
knives, or by lapping the cuts, or by cutting the whole vat 
of curd once or twice over, in addition to the usual 3 cuts. 
The extra cutting is usually done lengthwise of the vat with 
the perpendicular knife. 

(5) Begin heating soon after cutting and perhaps heat a 
few degrees higher than usual. At the time of drawing the 
whey, the firmness of the curd may be increased more or less 
by treatment as follows: 

(6) Stir the curd over with the hands on the bottom of 
the vat, one, two, three or more times before allowing it to 
mat. 

(7) If it is quite soft, so that it is difficult to keep it from 
matting by hand, stir with a wooden rake, teeth downward, 
while the whey is running out, but shut the gate while there 
is yet an inch or two of whey on the bottom of the vat, with 
most of the curd standing above the whey level. Continue 
stirring with the rake, as long as desired, until the curd 
appears firm enough, which will take only a few minutes. 
The whey left in the vat aids in keeping the curd from 
matting. When firm enough, the curd is drained fully by 
opening the gate again, and is piled as usual to mat. 

(8) An overripe curd is often rinsed with water of the 
same temperature immediately after drawing whey and 
before the curd mats. This removes the whey from between 
the curd cubes, carrying some lactic acid, milk sugar and 
bacteria which would otherwise go into the cheese. Using 
four pails of water to rinse a large vat of curd will slightly 
reduce its acidity, and check a slight tendency toward an 
acid cheese. 

Many factory men make it a practice always to rinse 
every vat of curd in this manner, believing that they thus 



194 Cheese Making. - 

improve the flavor, and they do this daily, whether the milk 
is overripe or not. 

This method of using water is sometimes carried further 
with overripe milk by drawing out half or nearly all the 
whey from the vat, as soon as the acidity of the whey 
reaches the selected point and immediately running water 
at the same temperature into the vat to dilute the remaining 
whey. The curd may thus be "firmed in water" for the pur- 
pose of avoiding a sour cheese. The difficulty with this 
method is that few factories have at hand a sufficient 
quantity of clean water (1,000-2,000 lbs.) at the right tem- 
perature for the purpose. 

Curds thus rinsed or firmed or washed in warm water 
should not be confused with "soaked curds" described in 
section 213, where the purpose and effect of using cold 
water is to cause the curd to soak up water which it would 
not otherwise hold, to the great injury of its quality. 

(240) Drawing the Whey. After deciding from the 
firmness and acidity (.17 to .19% as preferred) of the curd 
that it is time to draw the whey, the maker should see if the 
vat has cooled off and if so heat it up to the cooking tempera- 
ture, about 100 degrees, because the curd will mat more 
rapidly when warm than if cooler. 

The curd is given a final stirring to make sure that it is 
free from lumps and is then allowed to settle for a minute or 
two. With a wooden rake, or two rakes, or in New York 
with a board about six inches wide, as long as the width of 
the bottom of the vat, and bored with a number of |- or 
3/2-inch holes, the curd is pushed away from the gate end of 
the vat moving it forward very slowly to prevent the curd 
cubes from floating over the rake or board. A space of 
two feet or more, free from curd, next to the gate is thus 
obtained. The vat strainer is put inside the vat next to the 
gate, and another strainer is placed below the gate to 
catch any escaping curd. The whey is now drawn off 
rapidly through the gate, or by means of a siphon, if the vat 
has no gate. Vats with gates are universally used in Wis- 
consin, instead of the siphon. 

To allow the last of the whey to drain out rapidly, the 
gate end of the vat may be lowered slowly when the whey is 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 195 

nearly all out, but in recent years many vats are made 
having the bottom inclined downward toward the gate end, 
so that the curd drains well without tipping the vat. 

As soon as the level of the whey goes below the top of 
the curd, the final draining is made easier if a ditch is made 
in the curd down the middle of the vat, with the rake, begin- 
ning at the gate end. If this is not done, a good deal of curd 
is likely to be carried along by the whey currents, stopping 
up the strainer and delaying the draining. The edge of this 
ditch may be trimmed straight with a large knife and the 
trimmings spread over the curd in a thin layer. 

When the whey is out or nearly so, any necessary stirring 
or rinsing (239) of the curd is done immediately before the 
curd begins to mat. 

Stray particles of curd on the sides of the vat or in the 
strainer are brushed down and spread on the curd pile. 

(241) Matting the Curd. Curd is commonly matted on 
the bottomof the vat, in Wisconsin, but sometimes on drain- 
ing racks placed on the vat bottom. The curd is usually 
stirred little or none, before matting in this State, so that 
curd sinks are really unnecessary under these circumstances. 

To keep the curd warm while matting, the vat should be 
covered soon after making the ditch. Cold drafts blowing 
directly on the curd may be avoided by closing doors and 
windows, when necessary, while the curd is uncovered. 

If the room is cold, the curd may be kept warm by run- 
ning a little steam under the cover of the vat. The practice 
of running steam into the jacket for this purpose is not recom- 
mended, as it is likely to overheat the curd in spots. 

The curd is left undisturbed for perhaps 5 or 10 minutes, 
or until the bottom layer next the tin is well matted, so as 
to check the draining of whey through the mass. When this 
occurs, some whey will begin to collect on the top of the 
curd, or by pressing down with the hand on the upper curd 
surface, a quantity of whey is pressed out and collects around 
the hand. The curd is now matted well enough so that it can 
be cut immediately into large blocks, perhaps 12 by 18 
inches, across the vat, and turned over without breaking the 
blocks. The turning is begun at the gate end where there is 
some vacant space. 



196 Cheese Making. 

These blocks may be left, after the first turning, for 10 or 
20 minutes, or until their under surface is seen to be matted 
as well or better than their upper surface. The blocks of curd 
may then be turned over and piled two deep. They are 
repiled every 10 or 15 minutes, turning them over each time, 
turning the cold outer surfaces to the inside of the pile, and 
changing the lower blocks to the top. of the pile. 

If curds appear to be as firm and dry as they should be, 
they are piled 4, 8 or more blocks deep. This reduces the 
exposed surface from which moisture can evaporate, and also 
puts the curd under more pressure, which causes the firm 
curd to mat well and close up rapidly. A soft, moist curd 
on the other hand may be left in piles two blocks deep, as it 
will mat readily without much pressure, and being spread 
out will allow moisture to evaporate more freely. 

During the matting process, it is desirable to keep all 
parts of the curd at the same temperature, and this is accom- 
plished by turning the blocks of curd over and repiling them 
every 10-15 minutes, keeping the vat covered, etc. 

(242) Reasons for Matting Curd. When the curd is 
first matted, its acidity is low, as shown by the hot iron test 
or acidimeter. During the next few hours the curd is to be 
kept warm, in order to develop more acid, so that it may final- 
ly string Y2 to 1 inch or more on the hot iron, or test .7 to 1% 
acidity or more in the curd drippings, by the acidimeter. 
The curd is allowed to mat during" this period (1) because it 
would be very difficult to keep it in the granular form for so 
long a time while yet warm, as a great deal, of laborious stir- 
ring would be required; (2) curd held so long in granular form 
would become much drier than intended. 

The development of acid in the curd as described im- 
proves the flavor and texture of the finished cheese, and also 
greatly reduces the danger of getting a spongy, gassy cheese, 
which were more common in earlier years when curds were 
made granular, without matting. Even when there appears 
to be no danger of gas, it is much safer always to mat the 
curd. 

A granular curd can usually be recognized quickly when 
a trier plug or a cut surface is examined (205). The attempt 
to press a granular curd into a so!id mass, free from mechan- 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 197 

ical holes, is not usually successful. In order to get a well 
closed cheese, it is much safer to begin closing up the curd 
cubes by matting 1 or more hours before pressing, while the 
curd is yet warm. Although the matted curd must be milled 
later to permit of salting, yet it is milled into larger pieces 
than the original cubes, and there is much less chance for 
leaving mechanical openings in cheese, if these larger pieces, 
instead of the smaller cubes, are packed in the hoop for 
pressing. 

All the time that curd is held warm in the vat, it is curing 
much faster than is possible in the curing room at a lower 
temperature. Holding the cheese longer in the vat makes it 
ready to eat sooner. 

(243) Milling Curd. Before a curd can be considered 
fit to mill, it should be at least well enough matted so that 
the original cubes will not shatter apart when going through 
the mill, so that the milled curd will consist of uniform, large 
sized pieces, free from fine particles. This uniform mechan- 
ical condition is desirable because with large and small 
pieces in the milled curd, the distribution of salt will be 
uneven, as the small pieces have the greater surface area and 
take up more salt, per pound of curd, than the larger pieces. 

An acid test should also be made before milling, either 
with the hot iron, or the acidimeter. Also cut the curd in 
several places with a sharp knife and examine the cut surface 
for gas holes or for pin holes. If the curd is seen to be gassy, 
it should be kept in the vat until frequent examination shows 
clearly that the gas holes have stopped increasing in size and 
in number. Sometimes a curd has to be held thus two or 
three hours longer than usual before the gas holes stop grow- 
ing and begin to flatten out and close up. It is usually better 
to hold the curd in the large blocks, rather than to mill it 
first and hold it in small pieces, when gas is present. 

When the curd is in satisfactory condition as to closeness 
of texture, acidity, and freedom from gas, it may be milled. 

In addition, the best makers prefer to hold a curd before 
milling, until the cubes are so well united that the color on a 
cut surface appears uniform or nearly so, the texture is 
meaty or fibrous, and the acid test shows .7 to 1}4% acid, or 
the hot iron shows %- tol^-inch fine strings. 



198 



Cheese Making. 



(244) Styles of Curd Mill. The earliest style of mill 
consisted of one or two wooden rollers, armed with pegs or 
spikes, sometimes forked at the end. As the two rollers 
revolved at unequal rates, the curd was torn into irregular 
fragments in a violent manner. 

Later styles of mill had knife blades instead of spikes, 
and cut the curd instead of tearing it. The knives revolved 
with the roller, and the cutting was intermittent, occurring 
whenever a knife blade came against a piece of curd. A 
number of different mills were built on this principle. 

In the Harris mill, and similar kinds, the curd was 
pushed against a stationary knife or set«of knives, the pieces 
of curd passing between the knives. The Harris mill was 
operated by hand, while some other forms as the Barnard 
and the Fuller could be run by power. 

The Kasper mill is a later form in which the knives are 
arranged in the form of a cylinder, and the curd could be fed 
in continuously while the mill turned. 

The more modern forms of mill, as the Junker, Globe, 
etc., can be run by power, and the curd fed in without 




Fig. 40. — The Junker Curd Mill Can be Run by Hand or by Power. 



stopping. The curd passes first between rollers which carry 
it forward steadily. Cutting disks of sheet metal, spaced 
about Yi inch apart on an axle, cut the blocks of curd into 
long strips like the fingers of the hand. These strips are 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 199 

next cut off into short pieces like the joints of the fingers, by 
a set of knives like those in a lawn mower. The mills can be 
run at high speed, and cut rapidly. The Victor mill forces 
the curd through a stationary set of knives by means of a 
large revolving screw. 



Fig. 41. — The Globe Mill is One of the Newer Forms. 

(245) Draining the Curd After Milling. After mill- 
ing, the warm pieces of curd begin to mat together again 
very quickly, and to prevent this the curd is stirred by hand 
or with a curd fork having tines with rounded ends, so as 
not to make holes in the vat bottom. 

With the curd at about 90 degrees, it is observed either 
that (1) only a little clear, watery drippings run from the 
milled curd, or (2) that a little whitish, milky drippings 
escape, or (3) that a good deal of a thick white whey or drip- 
pings escape which in extreme cases may test as high as 
30% fat. The amount and character of the drippings after 
milling depend largely on the moisture and acid content of 
the curd. If it is well firmed and reasonably dry, the drip- 
ings are small in quantity and almost water clear in appear- 
ance, containing little or no fat. If the curd is moderately 
well firmed, as in Wisconsin, the quantity of drippings will 
be larger and its color more or less white and milky, due to a 
small amount of escaping fat. With a very moist, soft curd, 
the quantity of drippings after milling may amount to one 
or more pails full, and its fat test may be high. To save the 
greatest amount of food in the cheese, the curd should be 
made reasonably firm, thus reducing the fat loss after milling. 



200 Cheese Making. 

If the curd becomes quite greasy after milling, due to 
escaping fat, it should be rinsed with water at about 80-85 
degrees, shortly before salting, to rinse off the fat, which if 
left on the curd will make it more difficult to close up uni- 
formly when pressed. Four pails of rinse water are usually 
enough for a large vat of curd, and the water is allowed to 
drain out of the vat immediately. 

(246) Salting the Curd. The main object in milling 
the curd was to permit salt to be mixed all through the 
cheese. If a curd is too moist, a considerable amount of 
moisture can be removed by holding it in the vat for an hour 
or more after milling, with frequent stirring. But otherwise, 
the curd may be salted in a short time after milling, as soon 
as the drippings or rinsings have stopped running. 

The purpose of salting curd is (1) to improve the flavor. 

(2) It acts as a preservative, covering the curd surface with 
brine, checking the growth of molds on the surface, etc. 

(3) The curing process is made slower by the presence of 
salt so that the cheese is longer lived, and remains in a con- 
dition fit for food for a longer time. (4) A small amount of 
moisture is extracted from the curd by salt, but only a very 
little. 

Just before salting, the curd should have a smooth, silky 
surface and should be somewhat more mellow, or soft when 
squeezed, than when first milled. It should string an inch 
or more on the hot iron, and the drippings, before rinsing, 
may show about 1% of acid by the acidimeter. 

The proportion of salt weighed out is about 23^-2^ lbs. 
to 100 lbs. of curd.- After stirring the salt all through the 
curd the presence of the salt grains gives the mixture a rough, 
harsh feeling in the hand. After a few minutes the salt dis- 
solves in moisture extracted from the surface of the curd 
pieces. This leaves the curd surfaces somewhat drier and 
rougher feeling than before salting. 

It is left in the vat with Frequent stirring until the salt 
is fully dissolved and the curd again feels mellow and silky 
to the hand. It is then filled into the hoops with a scoop. 

The curd is stirred up every 10 minutes after salting, and 
is spread out to cool, usually with the vat uncovered. Some 
of the salt brine runs off of the curd, and in this way from 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 201 



\i to Yi of the salt added may be lost^ At the same time, 
the salt brine begins to soak into the curd, and the longer the 
curd is left in the vat after salting, the more salt is retained 
in the cheese. The reason for this is that if curd is pressed 
in 15-20 minutes after salting, most of the brine is on the 
curd surface, and is driven off when the curd is pressed. But 
when the salted curd is left for an hour longer in the vat, the 
salt brine soaks in farther and less of it is squeezed out in the 
press. 

(247) Styles of Cheese Hoops. The simplest form of 
hoop is a plain cylinder of wood or metal open at both ends, 
which was widely used with the old fashioned vertical press. 
A wooden follower, inside the upper end of the hoop, rests 
on the curd. In the early days, the hoops were removed 
after pressing the cheese, and a cloth bandage was wound 
around and fastened to the cheese. 

Instead of being cylindrical, hoops are now made a little 
larger at the top to permit easier removal of the cheese. 
Hoops are also made with closed bottoms in most cases, 
though sometimes these are loose and can be removed. The 
bandages are now applied to the hoop before filling it with 
curd, requiring less work than to bandage the cheese after 
pressing. 

The Canadian Cheddar cheese hoops are provided with a 
large tin funnel, fitting closely inside, and carrying the band- 
age, which is cut of the right length from a bolt of the tubular 
cotton cloth. In filling this hoop, the curd is packed and 
pounded down with a wooden packer, shaped like a bowling 
pin, or a base ball bat, and weighing about 5 lbs. After 
filling the hoop with curd, the bandager funnel is lifted out, 
leaving the bandage in place on the cheese. Large square 
cap cloths are used. 




Fig. 42. — Wilson Hoops Arc Used in the Eastern States. 



11 



202 Cheese Making. 

In the United States, where smaller cheese are more 
commonly made, much time is saved by bandaging the hoops 
earlier in the day, before they are needed, since many are 
used. The Wilson hoop is widely used in the eastern states, 
and the Fraser hoop in Wisconsin. 

(248) Directions for Using the Wilson Hoops. Each 
hoop consists of four pieces, as follows: 

B. The bottom cover, with the widest flange or rim. 
E. The open wide hoop. 

D. The closed or tight wide hoop. 

C. The top cover with narrow flange or rim. 

First — Place the cover with the widest rim (B) on the 
ways in the bottom of the press. 

Second— Place the Cap Cloth on the bottom of the cover 
(B). Said Cap Cloth should be as large as the bottom of the 
cover. 

Third — Place within the bottom of cover (B) the open 
hoop or bandager (E). 

Fourth — -Wet one edge of the bandage, adjust with the 
open hoop and turn the wet edge over the top of the hoop. 

Fifth — Put the closed wide hoop (D) on top of the open 
one, letting it lap over about one inch, and fasten the hooks 
which are provided to keep same from slipping down. 

Sixth — Put in the cheese curd as may be desired, for any 
thickness the cheese are to be made, but always put in enough 
so that the outer or tight hoop in slipping over the open one 
when pressing shall not quite be forced down to meet the edge 
of the lower cover. 

Seventh — Put on the top cover (C), then unfasten the 
hooks under the handles, then turn the cheese over, placing 
the top cover up snug against the head of the press. Proceed 
in the same manner with the balance of the hoops until all 
are filled, placing the top cover against the bottom of the 
previous one, etc. Then proceed to pressing. 

Eighth — After pressing as usual, for a time, the bandage 
is to be turned in or lapped over the edge of the cheese in 
order to press the bandage down. It is well also to remove 
the cheese from the hoop, turn it over, and put it back in the 
hoop with the other face up, and then put to press again. This 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 203 

will give opportunity to remove any wrinkles that may have 
formed in the bandage. 

(249) Sizes of Hoops and Cheese. Some supply 
houses list as many as 50 different sizes of cheese hoops, 
either in Fraser or Wilson style, but only a few sizes are in 
common use. 




Fig. 42A. — Sizes and styles of metal hoops for American, brick, and Muenster 
cheese. 



The usual market sizes of whole milk American cheese 
are about as follows: 

Name Weight Diameter Height 

Young America 8—10 lbs. &}4 inches 7 inches 

Long Horn 12 lbs. by 2 11^ 

Daisy 19-21 13-13H 3J^-4 

Flat 30 14-15 5^-6 

Cheddar 60 14-15 10^-11 



Square prints weighing 5 and 10 lbs. each are made 
9x4x4 inches, and 14x63^x33/2 inches in size, respectively. 

Canadian Cheddars usually weigh about 85 lbs. and are 
sometimes cut in two, making 43 lbs. flats or twins. The 
Canadian stilton shape is about the same as the Young 
America. Prints have marks impressed on the rind to show 
where they may be cut into 1-pound slices. 

(250) Cutting Cheese in Two. When this is neces- 
sary, it is done the next morning, after taking the cheese 
from the press. By means of a pair of dividers, or a pencil 



204 



Cheese Making. 



put through one end of a stick a mark is made around the 
cheese exactly at the middle and a sharp knife is then used 
to cut through the bandage along this line. A piece of copper 
wire, with short sticks at each end for handles is wrapped 
around the cheese, and drawn up tight, thus cutting the 
cheese smoothly in two. Each cut end is then covered with 
a cap cloth, and both halves are returned to the press for a 
few hours, to close and smooth the cut ends by pressing 
them against the bottom of the hoop and the follower. 

(251) The Fraser Hoop and Its Use. The hoops are 
cleaned (140) and made ready for use during the day at 
odd moments, while thickening the milk, firming the curd, 
etc. The cap cloth of muslin or, better, of canvas, is placed 
in the bottom of the hoop. Sometimes on top of the cap 
cloth there is placed also a starched circle of bleached and 
starched cheese cloth. 




Fig. 43. — -Fraser Hoops Are Generally Used in Wisconsin. 



The bandage if woven tubular, is cut the right length 
from a bolt and is applied to the bandager, which is the loose, 
upper split ring belonging to the Fraser hoop. If the 
bandages used are "ready made," that is, cut from cheese 
cloth and sewed up by machine, the bandage must first be 
turned inside out, to get the "wings" inside; and the wide 
end, if the bandage is tapered, is then applied to the 
bandager. 

Pushing the bandager down into the hoop until it fits 
against the shoulder, the bottom of the bandage should be 
long enough to turn up about three-quarters of an inch on 
the bottom of the hoop. The hoop is now ready to receive 
curd, which should be weighed in, so as to get all the cheese 
of uniform size, and packed down tightly by hand. 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 205 

Another cloth or pair of cloths is put on top of the curd, 
the same as at the bottom of the hoop, the follower is added 
and the hoops are piled up two or three deep, until all are 
ready for the press. 

After pressing for about an hour, the cheese in the 
Fraser hoops require to be dressed, which consists of remov- 
ing all wrinkles or other faults in the appearance of the 
cheese and turning down the bandage over the upper end 
ot the cheese. To do this, the hoop is taken from the press; 
and the follower is taken out with the hook. The bandager 
is then removed, releasing the upper end of the bandage. 
The hoop is then turned upside down, dropping the cheese 
on the table, or on a plank laid on top of the press. The cap 
cloths are removed, all wrinkles are pulled out of the bandage 
and the cheese with cloths returned to the hoop, this time 
turning down the upper end of the ' bandage under the 
follower. If high edges occur, due to loosely fitting followers, 
these are corrected and the cheese are returned to the press. 
If the cheese are crooked, that is, higher on one side than on 
the other, this is corrected by turning all such high sides to 
the bottom of the press. The cheese are then put under 
pressure and left until next morning. The press should be 
tightened either automatically or by hand, so as to keep the 
cheese under full pressure throughout the night. 

The Fraser hoops are made slightly wider at the top 
than at the bottom, so that they fit together in the press. 

When dressing the cheese, if it is seen that the top of the 
cheese stands above the shoulder of the hoop, the bandager 
should be put back in the hoop, to avoid a mark on the 
cheese due to the shoulder. 

(252) Weighing Curd Into Hoops. In order to have 
cheese of uniform size, as preferred by the buyer, it is custom- 
ary to place a dial scales on the vat bottom, weigh each 
hoop, and scoop a uniform weight of curd into each hoop. 
Especially when metal followers are used, without flexible 
fibre rings, it is necessary to place the correct weight of 
curd in each hoop which it is made to hold, in order that the 
follower may fit just right in pressing. 

(253) Pressing the Cheese. The salted pieces of curd 
are finally placed in hoops and pressed according to methods 



206 Cheese Making. 

described below, in order to close up the curd into a solid 
mass of the proper shape for the market. In pressing cheese 
it is best to apply a light pressure at first, just sufficient to 
start the drippings and later to increase the pressure as fast 
as necessary to keep them running, until the full pressure 
is on. 

After dressing the cheese in the hoops, the pressure should 
be maintained during the night, either tightening up the 
press by hand, when the cheesemaker goes to bed, or making 
use of an automatic pressure device, which does the work 
without attention. 

The aims in view in pressing are to close up the interior 
of the cheese into a solid mass, with as few mechanical holes 
left as possible, to close up the rind perfectly leaving no 
openings through which air may enter and permit the 
growth of molds inside of the cheese, to give the cheese a 
regular, workmanlike appearance, in size and shape, with a 
smooth and tightly adhering bandage. 

(254) Sampling Cheese for Moisture Test After 
Pressing One Hour. If cheese are thoroughly pressed for 
one hour before dressing, the moisture test samples may be 
taken while the cheese are out of the hoop, and the moisture 
tests thus obtained will agree closely with those obtained 
from samples taken next day. For this purpose the bandage 
may be turned down somewhat from the side of the cheese, 
and the trier inserted in the side, placing the trier plugs 
in sample bottles (75A). During the rest of the night's 
pressing, the trier holes will close up entirely leaving the 
cheese perfectly solid and compact. This is often preferred 
instead of boring a new cheese after taking it from the press 
on the day after making. 

(255) Cheese Presses and Continuous Devices. The 
primitive forms of cheese press working by means of a weight 
or weighted lever (209A) were first replaced in American 
cheese factories by vertical screw presses, which are yet used 
in a few eastern state factories. In recent years, horizontal 
gang presses have come into more general use, by which a 
long row of cheese are pressed by means of one screw, or by 
a hand lever. 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 207 




Fig. 44. — Cheese Sampling. Old cheese are sampled as shown in the upper 
figure. Cheese are sampl'ed after dressing as shown below. 



It is possible for remote factories to purchase the iron 
screw, nut and lever, and build a press from this by means of 
wooden rails or timbers. The same press can be bought 
already made or built with steel rails. These come in two 
sizes, wide for holding either daisies, flats or Cheddars, and 
and narrow for either long horns or young Americas. 

On account of the shrinkage in size which cheese undergo 
while in the press over night, several devices have been con- 
trived for automatically taking up the shrinkage and keeping 
the cheese under pressure. The simplest of these "contin- 
uous pressure" devices consisted of a set of one to four coil 
springs, enclosed in an iron box, which was put in the press 
along with the cheese. The springs were closed by the 
pressure applied at first, but later they expanded as the 
cheese shrunk. The Sprague device consists of a weight 
on a long lever arm, which in moving downward opens' a 



208 



Cheese Making. 



toggle joint, and offsets the cheese shrinkage. These de- 
vices have now been largely replaced by presses in which a 




Fig. 45. — The McKinnon Cheese Press. Several styles of cheese can be 
pressed at once. The pressure is automatically maintained over night. 



part of the press moves downward under the weight of the 
cheese, tightening up the head block in so doing. Among 
presses built on this plan are the Helmer, the McKinnon, 
and the Victor. 




Fig. 45A. — The Victor Press, built in several styles, with continuous pressure. 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 209 

(256) Taking Cheese From Hoops. After building a 
fire under the boiler, the maker's first work in the morning 
is to take the cheese out of the press, so as to get the hoops 
empty and ready for use again. To empty the hoops, the 
follower is removed by means of a hook, and the cheese is 
loosened from the sides of the hoop by running the flexible 
blade of a steel spatula or table knife all around the inside 
of the hoop. The hoop is turned over, and tapped lightly on 
the table, and the cheese falls out. It should be quickly 
inspected and if satisfactory in appearance, is placed on the 
curing room shelves. If faults in workmanship are seen, 
these are corrected so far as possible, and the cheese thus 
treated may be returned to the press and left until noon, 
when they are placed on the shelf. Each cheese on the shelf 
should be numbered to show when and in which vat it was 
made. 

(257) Faults Seen in Green Cheese. If some of the 
cheese, when taken from the press, are crooked, that is higher 
on one side than on the other, they should be returned to the 
hoop and the press, with all the high sides at the bottom of 
the press so that after repressing, this fault will be corrected. 

If bandages are wrinkled, they should be loosened from 
the cheese surface, and pulled smooth, and pressed again to 
make the bandage stick to the cheese as it should. If the 
bandage was not placed correctly in the hoop at first, it may 
lap too far or not far enough over one end of the cheese. 
This may be corrected by loosening the entire bandage, and 
moving it into place, or if too long, by cutting off part of the 
bandage with a sharp knife, and repressing. 

If the rind is not well closed, showing too light pressure or 
too large a follower, or that the curd was too cold when 
pressed, hot water may be poured over the outside of the 
hoop, in the press, and the follower may be trimmed or 
dipped in hot water, and the cheese repressed. 

Faults due to careless workmanship mark the maker as 
inattentive,, and cheese buyers as well as factory patrons 
soon learn which makers can be depended on to always make 
a neat appearing product. Too much acid causes cheese to 
close poorly, and the cap cloth when pulled off may tear 
away some of the rind. 



210 Cheese Making. 

(258) Cheese on the Curing Room Shelves. In most 
American factories cheese are kept only a few days on the 
shelves before shipment to the buyer's warehouse. On the 
shelf, they should be turned daily in order that both ends 
of the cheese may dry evenly, and not become moldy. The 
cheese should be well dried on the surface when boxed and 
shipped, so that they are fit to be paraffined as soon as re- 
ceived at the warehouse. Very few factories paraffme 
cheese before shipment. The curing room should be suffi- 
ciently well ventilated to allow the escape of moisture in the 
air, so that the cheese do not become moldy. The shrinkage 
in weight during this period before paraffining may be about 
5%, but if the room is cool may be somewhat lower. In 
warm weather, ventilation during the cool nights is prefer- 
able. Moldy cheese are cleaned with a dry brush, by 
scraping, washing and drying, or by applying a clean band- 
age and pressing. Rusty spots are due to a bacterial infec- 
tion, in the curing room. 

(259) Boxing Cheese For Shipment to Buyer. A 
piece of thin wood veneer, called "scale board" is placed 
in the bottom of each box, and another on top of the cheese 
in the box, and two scale boards between the cheese if two 
or three cheese are placed in the same box. These scale 
boards prevent cheese from sticking to each other or to the box. 

Heavy press cloths or heavy cap cloths, if used, are taken 
off of the cheese just before boxing. Thin starched circles, 
if used, may be left on until the cheese are ready to be dipped 
in paraffme. If cloths are removed long before paraffining, 
the cheese rinds are likely to check or crack open, and admit 
mold to the interior of the cheese. 

The boxes, if taller than the cheese, should be cut down 
so that the cover rests on the cheese as well as on the sides 
of the box, to prevent the boxes from splitting when piled 
high. 

This extra work can be avoided by ordering the boxes of 
theTright size to fit the cheese. The box lids should fit 
snugly, otherwise it will be necessary to wedge each lid on, 
after filling the box with cheese, to prevent falling off, and 
because railroads usually will not accept shipments with 
loose box lids. 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 211 

The boxes should be stored at the factory so as to keep 
dry and clean. 

Each cheese is weighed just before it goes into the box, 
and where two or more cheese are put in one box it is possible 
to make a selection so that all in a box will be of the same 
size or that the total weight of cheese in the box shall be at 
the desired figure. 

On the outside of each box, at one side of the nailed lap, 
should be placed the "marked weight" which is from \i to 
Y2 pound less than the actual weight of cheese when boxed. 
This allows for shrinkage and ensures that the buyer will 
receive the weight of cheese marked on the box and billed 
to him. The buyer's stamp or stencil is used in marking each 
box for shipment. 

On the other side of the nailed lap should be placed the 
number showing when the cheese was made. This enables 
the buyer to sort the cheese into piles by vats when received, 
so that by boring one cheese from each pile, he can test the 
quality of all. 

(260) Shipping Cheese. In packing boxed cheese in a 
railroad car, they should be piled evenly and arranged so as 
not to fall down or be broken in transit. Refrigerator cars 
pass through principal cheese shipping points twice a week 
or oftener and serve in summer to protect cheese from over- 
heating and from freezing in winter. In very cold weather, 
cars of cheese may be provided with oil heaters to prevent 
freezing. Frozen cheese should be slowly thawed at 34- 
50 degrees. 

Cheese are sometimes damaged by being hauled to the 
station and left standing in the sun for several hours before 
being placed in the car, or by being kept in the uncooled fac- 
tory curing room longer than necessary in summer, because 
of failure to receive cheese boxes when needed, or other 
causes. 

Where cheese box lids do not fit snugly, or cheese are to 
be shipped a long distance, or to a special market, especially 
to various export markets, the box lids may require to be 
wedged on tight, or the boxes may be placed in sacks or 
fastened together in 100-lb. packages with strap iron, to 
meet the demands of railroads or ship owners. 



212 Cheese Making. 

(261) Cheese at the Receiving Warehouse. The 

buyer of cheese from a factory receives the shipment in his 
warehouse, counts the boxes, sorts them in piles according to 
the marks on the boxes, tests one cheese from each vat by 
drawing a trier plug, and then starts opening the boxes. 
At least 5 or 10%, or all of the cheese in a shipment, are 
weighed on a dial scales, as they come from the boxes to see 
if the weights billed and marked on the boxes are correct. 
The cheese are dipped in paraffine and replaced in the boxes 
and may be either shipped out again immediately to pur- 
chasers, or may be placed in cold storage rooms, carefully 
arranged in piles, so that the contents of every pile is known 
exactly and can be given proper attention and finally 
shipped to a suitable market. 

If the cheese buyer finds either the quality or the marked 
weights of the cheese to be below the standard, the de- 
ficiency is noted, and notification is sent to the shipper at 
the factory, who may then accept the buyer's offer as to 
weights and reduced price, or may dispose of the cheese in 
any other way. 

Upon the buyer's judgment as to whether a given lot of 
cheese is of fit quality to be put into storage or not, so as to 
be taken out several months later without loss of quality 
and value, depends his profit or loss. 

(262) Paraffining Cheese. Cheese to be paraffined 
should be well dried on the surface and should have a small 
amount of dried cheese at the surface, forming a rind. The 
purpose of the paraffine is to protect the rind, prevent the 
growth of molds and minimize the shrinkage or loss of 
weight, by checking the evaporation of moisture from the 
cheese. 

The paraffine melting at 123-125 degrees is heated in a 
steam tank to about 220 degrees and the cheese are im- 
mersed for about two seconds. Under these conditions, the 
paraffine coating on the cheese is thin and flexible, and is 
less likely to crack off than if a thicker coating is applied 
at a lower temperature. 

(263) Rind Rot. Where a thick coating of paraffine 
is applied to cheese having a poorly dried surface, or too 
thin a rind due to insufficient drying, it will probably be 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 213 

found after a few clays, weeks or months, that the parafline 
is not adhering to the surface, but cracks off readily and 
that underneath the parafline, the surface of the cheese is 
wet and smeary. This condition is called "rind rot," and 
is so objectionable as to require that the cheese should be 
cleaned by washing, drying in the air, and paraffining again 
before they are sold. This extra trouble and expense is 
avoided by not making cheese too moist, and by seeing that 
they are in proper condition before first dipping in parafline. 
(264) Paraffining Equipment. Parafline can. be 
heated to 220° F., or' above in a sheet metal tank by means 




Fig. 46. — A Paraffining Outfit Used in a large Wisconsin Warehouse. 



of coil of steam pipes placed in the bottom of the tank. 
The entrance and exit pipes for steam should come up over 
the top edge of the tank, as it is difficult to make a tight 
joint and avoid leakage of parafline, if a hole is cut in the 
side of the tank near the bottom. 

With a parafline tank made of boiler iron with a double 
wall, steam is admitted to the jacket, direct from the boiler, 



214 Cheese Making. 

and the condensed water from the jacket may run back into 
the boiler by gravity. A small steam trap can be used to 
allow water but not steam to escape. 

In some Canadian warehouses, where all cheese received 
are of the low moisture, well firmed kind, the paraffine tank 
in use consists of a boiler iron tank, heated by a row of gas 
jets underneath, and in order to keep the paraffine from 
becoming too hot and boiling over and thus taking fire, a 
small amount of water is poured into the tank, making a 
thin layer below the paraffine. In this way, the paraffine is 
never heated higher than the boiling point of water, about 
212 degrees F. This appears to give satisfaction, but a 
higher temperature for the paraffine is recommended and 
used in many Wisconsin warehouses. 

A water jacketed paraffine tank with a gasoline lamp 
underneath does not heat the paraffine quite to 212 F., and 
for this reason steam heat is preferred. 

Where only a few cheese are dipped this can be done 
with tongs, one at a time, but in large warehouses, dipping 
frames carrying several hundred pounds of cheese, balanced 
by a weight on a rope and pulley, are suspended over the 
hot paraffine and immersed with the least loss of time. 

(265) The Cold Curing of Cheese. The supposition 
that cheese are injured, becoming bitter, etc., by curing in 
cold storage was overthrown by the experiments of Babcock 
and Russell at the Wisconsin Experiment Station, beginning 
about 1895. At present, cold storage warehouses having 
mechanical refrigeration maintain American cheese rooms at 
34 degrees. Other houses cooled by ice hold cheese at 40 to 
50 degrees. The Canadian cheese warehouses are com- 
monly kept at temperatures above 50 degrees which practice 
is called "cool curing." 

(266) The Cold Storage of Cheese. Cold storage is 
used as a means of preserving cheese in good condition from 
the fall months, September and October, until the winter 
and early spring months, when little is made. 

Privately owned cold storage warehouses in leading 
cheese centers rent rooms or space at fixed rates to cheese 
owners, charging in some cases y± of a cent per pound of 
cheese for the first month and y% cen t f° r the second month, 



Details of American Cheese Making Process. 215 

or a certain maximum price for storage until the following 
February 1st or March 1st. The cheese owner must recover 
the expense of the storage and the interest on his money 
invested in cheese during the winter, from the increased 
price at which the cheese may sell in the spring before the 
new cheese come into the market. In case the market 
price of cheese does not increase during the winter the 
cheese owner is a loser. Market prices are often unforeseen 
and uncontrollable. 

In case the cheese placed in storage deteriorate in quality 
during the winter, the owner is likely to suffer loss, and 
great skill and care must be used in selecting for storage 
only well made cheese of good quality and suitably low 
moisture to avoid loss from this cause. 

(267) Injuries to the Cheese Industry and Their 
Prevention. (1) A buyer who attends a cheese board 
meeting and buys 1,200 boxes of cheese, intending to store 
800 boxes and use 400 boxes at once for filling current orders 
for fine goods, may find when the cheese arrive from the 
factories that half or all of them are not fine goods and are 
unfit for storage, because of certain defects as high moisture, 
acidity, etc., but are fit only for immediate sale but not to 
the best trade. Because of these conditions, he may be 
tempted to store some cheese of doubtful quality, which 
may ultimately cause a loss. Also, he may be tempted to 
ship to his trade cheese of doubtful quality, which may not 
be found suitable on arrival, and cause him to lose money 
and future business. Where such conditions occur generally 
among factories and buyers in a county, a region, or a 
state, the cheese from that district lose their good reputation 
and the whole industry suffers injury, including farmers, 
makers and dealers. The enactment of cheese moisture 
limit laws in cheese producing states is an essential step in 
correcting and preventing such injury. 

(2) insanitary conditions in and about cheese factories, 
such as foul-smelling whey tanks or whey puddles on the 
ground, dirty buildings or utensils, when allowed to con- 
tinue, contribute directly to the production of defective 
quality in the products, encourage patrons to be careless 
and arouse in tourists and all passers-by feelings of disgust 



216 Cheese Making. 

for cheese made among such unwholesome surroundings, 
which are always recalled to mind by the sight of cheese on 
the table and which tend strongly to decrease the consump- 
tion of cheese. The establishment of Factory License 
Systems in the several states, by which insanitary factories 
are closed and careless makers refused licenses to make 
cheese, is an essential step in the prevention and correction 
of such evils where they occur. 

(3) In states where skim and part skim American cheese 
are made in the same sizes and shapes as whole milk cheese, 
there is always the possibility of a suspicion in the minds of 
consumers that any cheese coming from that state may be 
more or less skimmed, and of inferior quality as food. This 
condition where it exists is a source of injury to the industry. 
The Wisconsin law permitting skim milk cheese to be made 
only in a specified size, 10 inches in diameter and 9 inches 
high, which size is not used for whole milk cheese, effectively 
protects consumers from such fraud and establishes con- 
fidence in the consumer's mind on this point. 

(4) The very general sale to consumers of cheese while 
in a partly cured condition and very young in age, having 
little or none of the attractive flavor of well cured cheese, is 
a serious cause of injury to the industry. A return to the 
older custom of making firm, slow curing cheese, which will 
keep well in storage and to the custom of selling and eating 
only well aged, fine flavored cheese would do much to 
increase the popular demand for cheese among American 
consumers. 



CHAPTER XXX. 
ITALIAN CHEESE IN AMERICA. 

(268) Skim and Whey Cheese. These cheese are 
mostly made from skimmed or partly skimmed milk, and in 
some cases from whey. They are heavily salted, and have 
more or less acid flavor. The cheese arc not used by the 
average American trade, and few dealers handle them. 
While there is a certain small demand for them in this 




Fig. 47. — Italian Cheese, Hoops, Baskets, and Containers. 



country, especially since importation stopped, yet the busi- 
ness is in the hands of a very few firms, and factories should 
first make sure of an outlet before beginning lo make these 
products. 

(269) Caccio Cavallo or "horse cheese" is so named 
from a trade mark or from the supposed resemblance of the 
cheese to the shape of a horse's head. The cheese is some- 
times molded into a long cylindrical shape, and hung up by a 
string to cure. The portion above the siring settles over 
toward one side, giving an appearance suggesting the name 
by which it is known. The same cheese is also frequently 
made in round hoops, looking somewhat like a "daisy" 
American cheese. 



218 Cheese Making. 

The process varies somewhat. One third skim milk is 
often used. With 2% starter, the rennet curd is cooked up 
to 105 or 110, and the whey drawn immediately. The curd 
is matted, cut, turned, and piled, and -left in the vat until 
next morning, or until a small test portion dropped in boiling 
water, will form a thread reaching to the floor. It is then 
ready to mold. The curd is sliced thin and a small portion 
sufficient for one cheese, about 5 lbs., may be placed in a wick- 
er basket, dipped in hot water, and kneaded while hot into a 
doughy mass, and molded into the desired shape. Or, the 
entire quantity of sliced curd may be placed in a tub of boil- 
ing hot water, stirred with a paddle, covered again with 
water at 180 degrees, and after four or five minutes stirring, 
it is in one doughy mass. It is then dipped out with the pad- 
dle, live pound portions are weighed off and molded into the 
desired shape while hot, dipping into hot water again if 
necessary. 

The doughy curd may be worked first into a smooth ball, 
then elongated somewhat, squeezing a neck below, flatten- 
ing the head, and putting the piece into cold well water for an 
hour to harden, turning it over at short intervals on all four 
sides. The cheese is then put into salt brine for three days, 
and hung up to cure for about 90 days. After 30 days, it is 
very hard, and may be packed in barrels for shipment. 

Instead of molding by hand into various shapes, the hot, 
doughy curd is often placed in round metal hoops, about 12 
or 13 inches in diameter and 1 % inches deep. These cheese 
are later salted with dry salt on the shelf, and may be oiled 
on the surface. They are called by various names as Kaseri, 
Asiago, etc., and the process is variously modified. 

(270) Romano. This is usually made from skim milk, 
The rennet curd is matted, milled and packed into molds 
open at both ends, about 8 inches in diameter and 6 inches 
high. It is salted on the outside, after draining 24 hours. 

(271) Romanello. This is made like Romano, except- 
ing that the curd is placed in a wicker basket to drain, and 
after draining, the mass of cheese retains the imprint of the 
woven basket on its surface. The cheese are about 9 inches 
in diameter and 5 inches high, and weigh 9-12 pounds. Bask- 
ets of different sizes are used. 



Italian Cheese in America. 219 

(272) Feta. The skim milk is thickened with rennet, 
stirred or cut with knives, and then dipped into large wooden 
molds about 48 by 30 inches or any convenient size, and 8 
inches deep, standing on a draining cloth and table. A little 
later it is cut into large blocks, salted on the surface, and 
later turned over and salted again. The next morning, the 
curd is cut into slices about an inch thick, and packed in 
Daraffined wooden kegs holding about 125 lbs, with some salt. 
The spaces between the curd pieces are soon filled with salt 
brine from the curd. The cheese is ready to eat in thirty days. 

(273) Ricotta, or ricoria. This is composed mainly of 
whey albumen. The whey with perhaps 5 to 10 percent of 
skim milk added, is mixed with some sour whey from a barrel 
and is heated to about 190 degrees, F., which curdles it. It 
is allowed to stand quiet for 5-10 minutes. The curd rises 
and is dipped off with a fine meshed wire strainer, and 
poured into cloth bags to drain, or else placed in metal hoops 
9 inches high and 5 inches in diameter, with strainer sides and 
bottom. The curd settles to a height of 7 inches, and is 
salted dry on the outside next morning, by rolling in salt. 
The cheese are then returned to the hoOps for two hours to 
drain further, after which they are put to dry, which may be 
done on a rack of lath, in a room at 110 degrees, over the 
boiler, or the drying may be done in the open air. The dried 
cheese are wrapped in greased paper, placed in cartons and 
packed 40 in a box, and are ready for use at once. 

By adding whole milk instead of skim milk, ricotta gras 
is obtained by this process. 

A similar cheese made from whey with the addition of 
8-10% of milk, is dipped into molds 10 inches high and 8 
inches in diameter with strainer sides and bottom. It 
settles to a height of 7 inches, and is salted on the surface 
and dried out of doors, and is called Maroni. 

Where whey alone, without any milk added, is curdled by 
heat and sour whey, and the albumen put to drain in cloth 
bags, the product is salted with dry salt on the surface and 
called Mejette. 

(274) Parmesan and Reggiano. These are skim milk 
cheese made in copper kettles somewhat like Swiss cheese, but 
smaller in size. They are hard, and are grated for cooking. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 



PRIMOST. 



(275) Manvifacture and Use. In Norway 'and some 
other countries, whey left from cheesemaking is boiled down, 
like maple sap, until on cooling it will solidify, like maple 
sugar into a crumbly mass, consisting mainly of milk sugar. 
This is good food, but rather lacking in attractive flavor, 
and is called primost. 

By adding some buttermilk or whole milk to the whey the 
product is more pasty, and is called soft mysost. From sour 
milk cheese whey, the product is called sur-prim; and mysmer 
from sweet curd whey. Mysost means literally whey cheese. 

To meet the demand in this country from former residents 
of Norway, for this product, a few factories in the northern 
states, including Wisconsin, Michigan and northern Illinois 
make primost. 

The whey from the cheese vat, after making rennet 
cheese, is run immediately into a large iron pan, 8 or 10 feet 
in diameter, and about 2 feet deep, and Hat bottomed. The 




Fig. 48. — A Primost Pan Used in Wisconsin. 



Primost. 



221 



pan is made of smooth iron about J^ to ^ inch thick, and 
has a hollow bottom about six inches deep, into which steam 
is run for heating the pan contents. The whey soon boils, 
and the escaping steam passes up through a wooden flue 
through the roof. A large wooden hood over the pan con- 
nects with the Hue. A cloth apron tacked to the edge of the 
hood hangs down around the pan, and can be raised when the 
workman is stirring the pan contents, etc. 

Five thousand pounds of whey will require from 5 to 10 
hours to boil down. About 20 lbs. of steam pressure in the 
jacket is required, and toward the end a higher pressure to 
give the required temperatures. 




Fig. 49. — Stirring Tub for Primost While Cooling. 



During the boiling,, especially toward the end of the 
process when the material begins to thicken, the pan con- 
tents are stirred frequently to prevent sticking to the bottom, 
using a long handled iron hoe or scraper. When of the con- 
sistency of thin mortar, the steam is turned off, and the hot, 
mushy product is dipped with flat sided curd pails into a 
stirring tub, where the product is stirred as it cools, thus 
producing a fine grained, smooth mass of the consistency 
of thick mortar. The cooled mass is packed into well greased 
wooden cubes, such as are used for packing butter which is 
to be cut into pound prints. After standing for several days, 



222 Cheese Making. 

until the product is fully cooled and hardened, it is cut up 
with a wire, and the blocks, weighing one or two pounds, are 
wrapped in tin foil or dipped in parafTine, and placed in 
cartons for the retail trade. 

The acid developed in milk and whey during the making 
of American or similar cheese is of course present after the 
whey is boiled down and may impart more or less bitter or 
sour flavor, which is partly overcome by adding small pro- 
portions of brown sugar to the primost in the boiling pan, 
just before dipping it into the stirring tub. Primost requires 
no curing, but sometimes becomes moldy on long standing. 

In the middle of the tub stands a hollow box, through 
which a shaft extends upward, carrying a cross beam at the 
top, from which four paddles extend downward into the tub. 
The paddles move around the inside of the tub about 80 
times per minute, scraping down the primost from the walls, 
and keeping it moving while cooling. 

(276) Primost and Cottage Cheese. To make both 
primost and cottage cheese from skim milk, add 1 or 2% 
of starter to the sweet skim milk, heat to 90 degrees, set 
with rennet so as to cut into cubes in one-half hour. Stir 
the curd in the whey (or it may be broken with a rake) for 
half an hour, allow to settle, and draw off the sweet whey 
into the primost pan. Before the curd in the vat has a 
chance to mat, pour in several cans of cold water, enough 
to cover the curd. Leave the curd thus under a little 
water, at 70 degrees or lower, until early next morning, 
when the curd will have a good sour flavor. Drain the 
water off, add salt and pack the cottage cheese as usual. 

This method gets very sweet whey for primost and 
sour curd for cottage cheese out of the same milk. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

BLUE VEINED CHEESE RIPENED WITH MOLD 

INSIDE. 

The principal cheese varieties in this group are the 
French Roquefort, the English Stilton, aud the Italian 
Gorgonzola. In France, Roquefort is made from sheep's 
milk, containing from 7 to 12% of fat, and 17 to 23% of other 
solids. The milk is thickened in 1^-2 hours at about 80-90 
degrees. The curd is cut and stirred, and after dipping out 
some whey, the curd is poured on a cloth to drain. The 
curd after draining is stirred well by hand, and finally filled 
into perforated forms, adding small portions of mouldy 
bread crumbs in the centre of each form. The curd in the 
hoops drains three days longer in a warm room, and is then 
taken from the hoops to a cooler, dry room to dry the sur- 
face, turning daily for two or three days. It is then taken to 
the curing cellar, salted twice on the surface, and after three 
days more the slimy surface is cleaned with a brush, and the 
end is punctured many times with needles, making openings 
through which air reaches the interior of the cheese, to per- 
mit the growth of molds within. It is then taken to the cur- 
ing shelves, in a cave at 60% humidity and 40-46 degrees F. 
About 6 weeks of curing are required, and they are then 
wrapped in tin foil. In America, small quantities of fairly 
good Roquefort cheese have been made from cow's milk. 
The cut surface is veined with blue mold, and the cheese 
has a characteristic, somewhat peppery taste. 

Stilton cheese are made by somewhat similar methods, 
and English stilton is packed in stone jars for export. 

Gorgonzola is a blue veined cheese made in Italy. 

The Roquefort mold is a variety which is able to grow ' 
in an atmosphere containing much carbon dioxide and little 
oxygen, more freely than most other varieties, according to 
Thom, an American investigator. 



INDEX 



Numbers refer to sections, not pages 



Acid test, Mann's, 37; Marschall, 37. 

Acidimeter, use in cheese making, 202, 
203, 218, 238. 

Acidity test, Farrington, 39. 

Aeration of milk, 8. 

Agitators, 227. 

Albumen, 65. 

Alcohol test, 40. 

Alkaline tablet test, 39. 

American Cheddar cheese, definition of 
a good, 88. 

American cheese, composition, 67; fat 
standards, 69; moisture standards 
70; faults, 87, 257; quality standard 
88; making process details, 218, ff. 
202-204; selling, 102-104; boards o 
trade, 105; curing temperature. 134 
humidity, 135; three markets for 
200; soft, 204; granular, 205; Jack 
206; Monterey, 206-207; home 
made, 209 A; skim milk, 210-213 
sage, 214; pimento, 215; club, 216 
canned, 216B; pasteurized, 217 
soaked curd, 213; overripe milk 
239; Cheddar process, 241-242 
curing, 258, 265; boxing, 259, ship 
ping, 260; paraffining, 262,-264 
rind rot, 263; storage, 266; industry 
injured, 267; sizes and shapes, 249 
cleaning moldy cheese, 135, 258. 

Annatto color, 220. 

Babcock test applied to cheese, 76. 

Bacteria in milk, varieties, 14, 27. 

Bacterial infection, bad flavor from, 14. 

Bad flavors in milk, causes, 14. 

Bath room in cheese factory, 140. 

Block Swiss cheese, 196 (e). 

Brick, cheese, 193. 

Brie, 188. 

Buttermilk cheese, 172. 

Caccio cavallo cheese, 269. 

Calf stomachs, 52, 53. 

Camembert cheese, 187. 

Canadian Cheddar cheese, 202. 

Caned che ese, 216 B. 

Casein 64; test for, 128; manufacture, 
155-161 

Cheddars, 249 

Cheese factory associations, organiza- 
tion. 94-100 

Cheese factories, plan, 89; management, 
92 

Cheese in cold storage, 265. 

Cheese markets, 200. 

Cheesemakers' pay, 94. 

Cheese, moldy, cleaning of, 136, 258. 

Cheese presses, 255. 

Cheese trier, 78. 

Classification of cheese varieties, 150. 

Cleanliness in cheese factories, 3, 138. 

Club cheese, 21 6 A 

Cold-curing of Cheddar cheese, 265, 134. 

Colostrum milk, 11, 43, 62. 

Composite milk samples, 12. 

Cooked cheese, 175B. 

Cottage cheese, 162-171. 

Coulommier, 186. 

Cows, clean, 7; feeding, 91. 



Cream cheese, 179. 

Curd knives, 202, 225, 226. 

Curd mills, 244. 

Curd rack, 241. 

Curd rakes, 227, 239, 240. 

Curd sink, 202. 

Curd test, the Wisconsin, 15. 

Curdling temperature experiments, 176. 

Curds, 17; pin-holev, 243; steaming, 
241; washed, 239 (8). 

Curing agents. 133A. 

Curing cheese at different tempera- 
tures, 265, 266; shrinkage in, 258. 

Curing rooms, 89, 134, 135. 

Curing shelves, 140 

Daisies, 249. 

Dividends, figuring. 97, 117-132. 

Drum Swiss cheese, 195-198. 

Edam cheese, 199A. 
English cheese score, 78. 

Factory, cleanliness, 138; statement, 
100; plans, 89;s urroundings, 139; 
large or small, 90; management, 92— 
101; cooperative, 96. 

Farm Cheddar cheese, 209A. 

Farrington alkaline tablet test, 39. 

Fat, effect on quality of cheese, 69 ; effect 
on quantity of cheese, 119, 121; loss 
in whey, 69, 109; test on cheese, 76. 

Fat globules, 63. 

Feed, bad flavors in milk from, 14. 

Fermentation test, 16. 

Figuring dividends, 97, 117—132. 

Flats, 249. 

Fraser gang hoops, 251. 

Galactase, 133A 
Gammelost, 175C. 
Glaesler cheese, 198. 
Gouda cheese, 199B. 

Hand cheese; 174. 

Harris, rennet test, 46, 50. 

Hart's casein test. 128. 

Hoops, Fraser gang, 251; Wilson, 248. 

Hot-iron test, 51. 

Humidity, relative, table showing, 137. 

Hygrometer, 136. 

Ideal Cheddar cheese, 88. 
Infection of milk, 14, 27. 
Italian cheese, 268-274. 

Judging cheese, 78. 
Junket, 178. 

Kraeuter cheese, 175. 

Lactometer, 12. 

Limburger cheese, 190-192B. 

Licensing factories and makers, 141. 

Mann's acid test, 37. 
Making cheese, rates for, 94. 
Marschall acid test, 37; rennet test, 44' 



Index. 



225 



Milk, aeration, 8; care, 8; composite 
samples, 12; composition, 62; con- 
tamination, 14; cooling, 8, 12; de- 
fects, 11; ripening, 19-21; samples, 
preserving, 12; sugar, 159B; supply 
increased, 91; time of secretion, 7; 
utensils, care of, 6; watered detec- 
tion of 12 

Moisture, test, 73-75B. 254. 

Molds, how to kill, 135. 

Moldy cheese cleaning, 258. 

Monrad rennet test, 45, 50. 

Muenster cheese, 194. 

Neutralizer, 38. 
Neufchatel cheese. 179-185. 
Niszler cheese. 198. 

Overripe milk, 239. 

Paracasein, 177. 

Paraffining cheese, 262; tank for, 264. 
Pasteurized milk cheese, 169, 217. 
Payments for milk. 117-132. 
Pasteurized cottage cheese, 171. 
Pepsin, compared with rennet, 57; use 

in cheese making, 58. 
Pooling system, 118. 
Print cheese, 249. 
Primost, 275. 
Proteins, 64-65. 
Psvchrometer, 136. 
Pu'ltost, 175D. 

Records, keeping daily, 219. 

Relative humidity, tables, 137. 

Rennet, action, 41; experiments, 48. 

Rennet, effect of acid and other condi- 
tions, 47—48; temperature, 42; water 
in milk, 44. 

Rennet extract, 55; strength, 60; manu- 
facture, 54, 61. 

Rennet tests, 41-48; in Swiss cheese 
making, 198; uses, 51; vary, 47. 



Rennets, commercial, 52. 
Ricotte cheese, 273. 
Roman cheese, 268-274. 
Rusty spots in cheese, 258. 

Sage cheese, 214. 

Salting milk, effect of, 43. 

Sampling tube, Scovell, 12. 

Sap sago, 175. 

Scale boards, 259. 

Schabziger cheese, 175. 

Scoring cheese, scales for, 78. 

Scovell sampling tube, 12. 

Sediment test, 17. 

Septic tank, 89. 

Skim-milk cheese, 210, 268. 

Soaked curd cheese, 213. 

Soft American cheese, 204. 

Starter, lactic ferment, 34; natural, 35; 

making, 26-33; effect of, 23, 24. 
Stencil, buyer's, 259. 
Sub-earth ducts, 134. 
Swiss cheese, 195-198. 

Test committee, 99. 

Udder, structure, 7. 

Varieties of cheese, 150. 

Washing curds. 239 (8). 

Wastes avoided, 101. 

Watered milk, detection, 12. 

Whey cheese, 268. 

Whey composition, 67, 69; skimming, 

107-116. 
Whey tank, how built, 89. 
Wilson cheese hoops, 248. 
Wisconsin curd test, 15. 

Yield of cheese from 100 lbs of milk 
(New York figures), 121. 

Young Americas. 249. 



CHR. HANSEN'S LABORATORY, Inc. 

Headquarters for 
Dairy Preparations Unequaled in Purity and Strength 

Chr. Hansen's Danish Rennet Extract 
R-P Extract and Pepsin Extract 
Chr. Hansen's Danish Cheese Color 
Danish Butter Color and Lactic Fer- 
ment Culture 

Rennet Tablets and Cheese Color Tablets for 
Cheese Making on the Farm 

Junket Tablets, Pure Food Colors, Buttermilk 
Tablets, etc. 

CHR. HANSEN'S LABORATORY, Inc. 

MILWAUKEE, WIS. : : : LITTLE FALLS, NEW YORK 



D. H. BURRELL & CO. 

LITTLE FALLS, NEW YORK 

Branches: Rome," N. Y. and Brockville, Ont. 

Manufacturers of and dealers in apparatus and supplies for the manu 
facture of cheese and butter and also for the handling of milk in any 
quantity. 

Some of Our Specialties Are : 

Sanitary Milk and Cream Vats 
"Sprague" Automatic Adjustable Cheese 

Presses 
"Simplex" Pasteurizers — Centrifugal, Tu- 
bular and Tank Systems 
"Simplex" Heaters and Coolers 
"Simplex" Sanitary Pipe and Fittings 
"Simplex" Sanitary Milk Pumps 
"Simplex" Combined Churns and Workers 
"Simplex" Milk and Whey Separators and 

Clarifiers 
"Burrell — B. L. K." Cow Milkers, etc. 

Write for Catalogues and Prices 



STOELTING BROS. CO. 

KIEL, WISCONSIN 

Manufacturers of the well-known line of 



Cheese Presses f 
Cheese Vats 
Cheese Shelves 





Curd Agitators 
Curd Knives 
Curd Mills 



Also a complete line of all other machinery and 
supplies for the factory and creamery. 



You Might as Well 
Guess at Your Test s 

As To Use Inaccurate 
Testing Glassware 

You can depend on the Accuracy and Quality of 

Nafis Creamery Glassware 

If your dealer cannot supply you with NAFIS 

GLASSWARE, write for our illustrated 

catalog and list of our distributors. 



LOUIS F. NAFIS, Inc. 



542-548 Washinglon Blvd. 






Manufacturers of Scientific Glassware 



CHICAGO 



TRADE MARK 



STANDARDIZED PRODUCTS 



FOR 



DAIRYMEN 

Renzyme Liquid 

Thoroughly established among American 
and Canadian Cheese-makers as a stand- 
ard rennetic coagulant 

Liquid Chlorides 

An ideal dairy and household disin- 
fectant, powerful, clean, safe, agreeable 

Cheese and Butter Color 

High test, uniform, reliable, economical, 
purely vegetable, embodying just the de- 
sired elements and shades 

Starter Culture 

To insure uniform ripening and to control 
flavor in butter and cheese 



DIGESTIVE FERMENTS C< 

DETROIT, MICH., U. S. A. 



c Uhe 

OAKES & BURGER CO. 

OF 

CATTARAUGUS, N. Y. 

Has been, since 1873, the National Headquarters for 
everything used in the manufacture of cheese. 



WE CAN SUPPLY AT ALL TIMES 



Equipment Supplies 

Boilers Bandage 

Steam Fitting Supplies Renne t Extract 

Cheese Vats 

Cheese Kettles Pe P sin Preparations 

Cheese Presses Cloth Circles 

Curd Sinks cheese Salt 

Tinned Steel Cheese 

Hoops, with Electric Cheese Color 

Welded Seams Box Materials 
Starter Cans 

Weigh Cans Tacks and Nails 

Milk Cans Milk Books 

Scales Wyandotte Wash- 

Tinware ing Powder 
Curd Knives 

Cheese Box Machines Sal Soda 

Curd Mills Etc. 

& B TINNED STEEL CHEESE HOOPS 
ARE STANDARD EVERYWHERE 



Why Don't You Send for Our Complete Catalog? 



OAKES & BURGER CO. 

CATTARAUGUS, N. Y. 



THE 

QUALITY 

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NEVER i 

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